Research bytes 10-7-10: Preschool executive functions, general knowledge, attention & visual motor important for later school success

More research on possible early predictors of subsequent school success

Clark, C. A. C., Pritchard, V. E., & Woodward, L. J. (2010). Preschool Executive Functioning Abilities Predict
Early Mathematics Achievement. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1176-1191.

Impairments in executive function have been documented in school-age children with mathematical learning difficulties. However, the utility and specificity of preschool executive function abilities in predicting later mathematical achievement are poorly understood. This study examined linkages between children's developing executive function abilities at age 4 and children's subsequent achievement in mathematics at age 6, 1 year after school entry. The study sample consisted of a regionally representative cohort of 104 children followed prospectively from ages 2 to 6 years. At age 4, children completed a battery of executive function tasks that assessed planning, set shifting, and inhibitory control. Teachers completed the preschool version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Clinical and classroom measures of children's mathematical achievement were collected at age 6. Results showed that children's performance on set shifting, inhibitory control, and general executive behavior measures during the preschool period accounted for substantial variability in children's early mathematical achievement at school. These associations persisted even after individual differences in general cognitive ability and reading achievement were taken into account. Findings suggest that early measures of executive function may be useful in identifying children who may experience difficulties learning mathematical skills and concepts. They also suggest that the scaffolding of these executive skills could potentially be a useful additional component in early mathematics education.

Grissmer, D., Grimm, K. J., Aiyer, S. M., Murrah, W. M., & Steele, J. S. (2010). Fine Motor Skills and Early
Comprehension of the World: Two New School Readiness Indicators. Developmental Psychology, 46(5),
1008-1017.

Duncan et al. (2007) presented a new methodology for identifying kindergarten readiness factors and quantifying their importance by determining which of children's developing skills measured around kindergarten entrance would predict later reading and math achievement. This article extends Duncan et al.'s work to identify kindergarten readiness factors with 6 longitudinal data sets. Their results identified kindergarten math and reading readiness and attention as the primary long-term predictors but found no effects from social skills or internalizing and externalizing behavior. We incorporated motor skills measures from 3 of the data sets and found that fine motor skills are an additional strong predictor of later achievement. Using one of the data sets, we also predicted later science scores and incorporated an additional early test of general knowledge of the social and physical world as a predictor. We found that the test of general knowledge was by far the strongest predictor of science and reading and also contributed significantly to predicting later math, making the content of this test another important kindergarten readiness indicator. Together, attention, fine motor skills, and general knowledge are much stronger overall predictors of later math, reading, and science scores than early math and reading scores alone.

Technorati Tags: Psychology, school psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, forensic psychology, neuropsychology, special education, developmental psychology, intelligence, cognitive abilities, cognition, intelligence theories, CHC theory, CHC, Cattell-Horn-Carroll, intelligence, cognition, preschool, school readiness, Gq, Grw, Gv, executive functioning, visual-motor, Gv, reading, math

Dissertation Dish: Brief neuropsych. battery for reading disability screening

Sensitivity of an abbreviated neuropsychological battery in screening for reading disability by Kane, Cynthia, Ph.D., Illinois Institute of Technology, 2010 , 71 pages; AAT 3417931

Abstract

Identification of reading disorder in children is the first step in providing appropriate intervention. Neuropsychological assessment provides comprehensive information regarding cognitive strengths and weaknesses; however, there are several inherent drawbacks to this type of evaluation that limit its accessibility, including the time and cost involved. The objective of this study was to determine whether an abbreviated neuropsychological battery, decreasing both time and cost could effectively identify reading disorder. 78 children, ages 6-18, were administered the Woodcock Johnson Academic Achievement Scales, Third Edition (WJ-III) Broad Reading Index, the California Verbal Learning Test for Children (CVLT-C), the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), and the Matrix Reasoning, Similarities, Block Design, and Vocabulary subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). Of these 78 children 52 had been previously diagnosed with reading disorder, while the remaining 26 had no diagnosis. A discriminant function analysis resulted in a significant Wilks' Lambda and the abbreviated battery successfully classified cases into their correct diagnostic groups at a rate of 80%. Two subsequent analyses were computed, first with the combination of the WJ-III, the BRIEF, and Similarities, and then with just the WJ-III. Results of these analyses indicated that both models significantly discriminated between groups. The three variable model predicted diagnostic classification with 78% accuracy, while the single variable model predicted with 65% accuracy. Results of this study suggest that an abbreviated battery can have diagnostic utility in screening for reading disorder

Technorati Tags: Psychology, school psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, forensic psychology, neuropsychology, special education, intelligence, cognitive abilities, cognition, intelligence theories, CHC theory, CHC, Cattell-Horn-Carroll, intelligence, cognition, IQ, IQ tests, Gf, Gc, Gv, Ga, Gsm, Glr, Gs, Gq, Grw, WJ-R, WJ III, Woodcock-Johnson, WJ III NU, reading disability, screening, LD, learning disabilities, brief neuropsych, dissertation dish

Research bytes 7-14-10: Early detection and prediction of academic problems-special issue of JLD

Thomson, J. M., & Hogan, T. P. (2010). Introduction: Advances in Early Detection of Reading Risk. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 291-293.

Adlof, S. M., Catts, H. W., & Lee, J. (2010). Kindergarten Predictors of Second Versus Eighth Grade Reading Comprehension Impairments. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 332-345.

Multiple studies have shown that kindergarten measures of phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge are good predictors of reading achievement in the primary grades. However, less attention has been given to the early predictors of later reading achievement. This study used a modified best-subsets variable-selection technique to examine kindergarten predictors of early versus later reading comprehension impairments. Participants included 433 children involved in a longitudinal study of language and reading development. The kindergarten test battery assessed various language skills in addition to phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, naming speed, and nonverbal cognitive ability. Reading comprehension was assessed in second and eighth grades. Results indicated that different combinations of variables were required to optimally predict second versus eighth grade reading impairments. Although some variables effectively predicted reading impairments in both grades, their relative contributions shifted over time. These results are discussed in light of the changing nature of reading comprehension over time. Further research will help to improve the early identification of later reading disabilities.

Corriveau, K. H., Goswami, U., & Thomson, J. M. (2010). Auditory Processing and Early Literacy Skills in a Preschool and Kindergarten Population. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 369-382.

Although the relationship between auditory processing and reading-related skills has been investigated in school-age populations and in prospective studies of infants, understanding of the relationship between these variables in the period immediately preceding formal reading instruction is sparse. In this cross-sectional study, auditory processing, phonological awareness, early literacy skills, and general ability were assessed in a mixed sample of 88 three- to six-year-old children both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Results from both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses suggest the importance of early auditory rise time sensitivity in developing phonological awareness skills, especially in the development of rhyme awareness.

Hogan, T. P. (2010).  A short report:  Word-level phonological and lexical characteristics interact to influence phoneme awareness

In this study, we examined the influence of word-level phonological and lexical characteristics on early phoneme awareness. Typically developing children, ages 61 to 78 months, completed a phoneme-based, odd-one-out task that included consonant—vowel—consonant word sets (e.g., “chair—chain—ship”) that varied orthogonally by a phonological characteristic, sound contrast similarity (similar vs. dissimilar), and a lexical characteristic, neighborhood density (dense vs. sparse). In a subsample of the participants—those with the highest vocabularies—results were in line with a predicted interactive effect of phonological and lexical characteristics on phoneme awareness performance: word sets contrasting similar sounds were less likely to yield correct responses in words from sparse neighborhoods than words from dense neighborhoods. Word sets contrasting dissimilar sounds were most likely to yield correct responses regardless of the words’ neighborhood density. Based on these findings, theories of early phoneme awareness should consider both word-level and child-level influences on performance. Attention to these influences is predicted to result in more sensitive and specific measures of reading risk.

Liu, P. D., McBrideChang, C., Wong, A. M. Y., Tardif, T., Stokes, S. F., Fletcher, P., & Shu, H. (2010). Early Oral Language Markers of Poor Reading Performance in Hong Kong Chinese Children. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 43(4), 322-331.

This study investigated the extent to which language skills at ages 2 to 4 years could discriminate Hong Kong Chinese poor from adequate readers at age 7. Selected were 41 poor readers (age M = 87.6 months) and 41 adequate readers (age M = 88.3 months). The two groups were matched on age, parents’ education levels, and nonverbal intelligence. The following language tasks were tested at different ages: vocabulary checklist and Cantonese articulation test at age 2; nonword repetition, Cantonese articulation, and receptive grammar at age 3; and nonword repetition, receptive grammar, sentence imitation, and story comprehension at age 4. Significant differences between the poor and adequate readers were found in the age 2 vocabulary knowledge, age 3 Cantonese articulation, and age 4 receptive grammar skill, sentence imitation, and story comprehension. Among these measures, sentence imitation showed the greatest power in discriminating poor and adequate readers.

Smith, S. L., Roberts, J. A., Locke, J. L., & Tozer, R. (2010). An Exploratory Study of the Development of Early Syllable Structure in Reading-Impaired Children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 294-307.

Babbling between the ages of 8 and 19 months was examined in 19 children, 13 of whom were at high risk for reading disorder (RD) and 6 normally reading children at low familial risk for RD. Development of syllable complexity was examined at five periods across this 11-month window. Results indicated that children who later evidenced RD produced a lower proportion of canonical utterances and less complex syllable structures than children without RD. As syllable complexity is an early indicator of phonological sophistication, differences at this level may offer a window into how the phonological system of children with RD is structured. Future directions for this line of research are discussed

Torppa, M., Lyytinen, P., Erskine, J., Eklund, K., & Lyytinen, H. (2010). Language Development, Literacy Skills,
and Predictive Connections to Reading in Finnish Children With and Without Familial Risk for Dyslexia.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 308-321.

Discriminative language markers and predictive links between early language and literacy skills were investigated retrospectively in the Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Dyslexia in which children at familial risk for dyslexia have been followed from birth. Three groups were formed on the basis of 198 children’s reading and spelling status. One group of children with reading disability (RD; n = 46) and two groups of typical readers from nondyslexic control (TRC; n = 84) and dyslexic families (TRD; n = 68) were examined from age 1.5 years to school age. The RD group was outperformed by typical readers on numerous language and literacy measures (expressive and receptive language, morphology, phonological sensitivity, RAN, and letter knowledge) from 2 years of age onward. The strongest predictive links emerged from receptive and expressive language to reading via measures of letter naming, rapid naming, morphology, and phonological awareness.

vanderLely, H. K. J., & Marshall, C. R. (2010). Assessing Component Language Deficits in the Early Detection of Reading Difficulty Risk. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 357-368.

This article focuses on some of the linguistic components that underlie letter-sound decoding skills and reading comprehension: specifically phonology, morphology, and syntax. Many children who have reading difficulties had language deficits that were detectable before they began reading. Early identification of language difficulties will therefore help identify children at risk of reading failure. Using a developmental psycholinguistic framework, the authors provide a model of how syntax, morphology, and phonology break down in children with language impairments. The article reports on a screening test of these language abilities for preschool or young school-aged children that identifies those at risk for literacy problems and in need of further assessment.

Hogan, T. P., & Thomson, J. M. (2010). Epilogue to Journal of Learning Disabilities Special Edition ''Advances in the Early Detection of Reading Risk'': Future Advances in the Early Detection of Reading Risk: Subgroups,
Dynamic Relations, and Advanced Methods. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 383-386.

Six studies and one synthesis focused on early identification of reading impairment in this special edition. A familiar theme emerged: reading involves multiple subsystems that dynamically interact across development, making early identification a “moving target” (cf. Speece, 2005). Based on the cumulative findings presented in this edition, we pose five key considerations for future advances in the early detection of reading risk: (a) attention to the definition of reading and the heterogeneity of poor readers; (b) longitudinal dynamic relations; (c) application of advanced, theory-driven methods and statistical models; (d) early identification that leads to prescriptive early intervention; and (e) early identification in a multilingual, multicultural population.

Technorati Tags: Psychology, school psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, forensic psychology, neuropsychology, special education, intelligence, cognitive abilities, cognition, intelligence theories, CHC theory, Cattell-Horn-Carroll, factor analysis, IQs Corner, IQ, IQ tests, IQ scores, school achievement, early screening, at risk learners, prediction of achievement, early detection of learning problems

Dissertation Dish: Gifted screening and executive functioning

I like this first dissertation. When I was a practicing school psychologist I, in one of my schools, help develop a screening of all incoming kindergarten students with the then test (now the WJ-R KnowledgeWJ III Academic Knowledge test). It was combined with the WJ-R Skills cluster. We found the knowledge measure a nice proxy for intelligence (for screening purposes only) and degree of preschool acculturation. The first dissertation below shows that this little test may be a good for screening gifted students...largely for the same reasons --- it is a good measure of crystallized intelligence (Gc). [Conflict of interest disclosure: I'm a coauthor of the WJ III Battery]

Predicting IQ from achievement when screening academically gifted students in the state of Tennessee by Edwards, Deidrah L., Ph.D., Tennessee State University, 2008, 74 pages; AAT 3307986

• Abstract: This research investigated the predictability of pre-kindergarten through fifth grade students' IQ scores when given the Woodcock Johnson, Third Edition (WJ-III) Academic Knowledge sub test for the purpose of gifted screening in the state of Tennessee. The investigator explored a possible method to obtain a faster, more efficient way to screen academically gifted children. Data was collected from 127 student's comprehensive intellectually gifted assessment reports. The Student's Academic Knowledge score, Creative Thinking score and Teacher Observations Checklist score were assessed for the purpose of determining their ability to predict IQ. Both linear regressions and multiple regressions were used to analyze data. Results indicated The Academic Knowledge subtest acted as a significant predictor of both Verbal IQ and Full Scale IQ; however, results indicated the Academic Knowledge subtest was not a significant predictor of Non-Verbal IQ. Results also indicated that, when combined the Academic Knowledge subtest score, the Teacher Checklist score and Creative Thinking score were significant predictors of Full Scale IQ; while the Creative Thinking score added no significant predictability. The results supported previous literature for achievement's ability to predict IQ. Verbal and Full Scale IQ, as well as Academic Knowledge, appear to assess crystallized intelligence and may be a reason for the significant results.

The role of executive function skills in children's competent adjustment to sixth grade: Do elementary classroom experiences make a difference? by Jacobson, Lisa A., Ph.D., University of Virginia, 2008, 193 pages; AAT 3322487

• Abstract: Executive functioning skills play an important role in children's cognitive and social functioning. These skills develop throughout childhood, concurrent with a number of developmental transitions and challenges. One of these challenges is the transition from elementary schooling into middle-level schools, which research shows has the potential to significantly disrupt children's academic and social trajectories. However, little is known about the role of executive functioning on children's adjustment during this transition.
• This study investigated the relation between children's executive functioning skills, assessed both before and during elementary school, and sixth grade academic and social competence. In addition, the influences of the type of school setting attended in sixth grade and elementary classroom experiences on children's academic and behavioral outcomes were examined. Finally, associations with children's level of physiological development (pubertal status) were investigated.
• Executive functioning skills were assessed broadly, using the Continuous Performance Test, the Woodcock-Johnson Memory for Sentences subtest, the Day-Night Stroop test, the Delay of Gratification test, and the Tower of Hanoi. Children's executive functioning skills significantly predicted sixth grade competence, as rated by teachers and parents, in both academic and social domains. The interactions between type of school setting and children's executive function skills were significant: parents tended to report more behavioral problems and less regulatory control in children with weaker executive skills who were attending middle school. In contrast, teachers reported greater academic and behavioral difficulty in students with poorer executive functioning attending elementary school settings. This association was partially mediated by children's perceptions of classroom expectations or demands.
• Observations of classroom quality during elementary school provided an estimate of children's classroom experiences. Average levels of emotional, instructional and organizational quality were associated with sixth grade academic competence and parental reports of behavioral functioning, with variation in children's experiences of classroom organization predictive of both academic and social functioning. In addition, the interaction effects indicated that children with poorer executive functioning tended to show less competent academic behavior when they experienced greater variation in classroom instructional support. Children's pubertal status was weakly associated with children's planning and problem-solving skills but was not associated with sixth grade academic or behavioral competence.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, education, school psychology, neuropsychology, gifted, executive function, screening, WJ III, Woodcock Johnson

Math screening and prgressing monitoring - Guest post by John Garruto

The following is a guest post by John Garruto, school psychologist with the Oswego School District and member of the IQs Corner Virtual Community of Scholars. John reviewed the following article and has provided his comments below. [Blog dictator note - John's review is presented "as is" with only a few minor copy edits by the blog dicator

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Compton, D.L., Bryant, J.D., Hamlett, C.L., & Seethaler, P.M. (2007). Mathematics Screening and Progress Monitoring at First Grade: Implications for Responsiveness to Intervention. Exceptional Children, 73(3), 311-330.

Abstract

• The predictive utility of screening measures for forecasting math disability (MD) at the end of 2nd grade and the predictive and discriminant validity of math progress-monitoring tools were assessed. Participants were 225 students who entered the study in 1st grade and completed data collection at the end of 2nd grade. Screening measures were Number Identification/Counting,Fact Retrieval, Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) Computation, and CBM Concepts/Applications. or Number Identification/Counting and CBM Computation, 27 weekly assessments were lso collected. MD was defined as below the 1 Oth percentile at the end of 2nd grade on calculations nd word problems. Logistic regression showed that the 4-variable screening model produced ood and similar fits in accounting for MD-calculation and MD-word problems. Classification ccuracy was driven primarily by CBM Concepts/Applications and CBM Computation; CBM oncepts/Applications was the better of these predictors. CBM Computation, but not Number dentification/Counting, demonstrated validity for progress monitoring.

John Garruto speaks (in his own words)

• This article begins with a summary of research that has already been done to date regarding math disabilities. One of the most important conclusions reached through analysis of past studies is that screening outcomes will likely differentiate math computation from math reasoning skills--looking at math as a universal entity would likely be erroneous.
• Examples of pre-existing research included reviewing the influence of various screeners in predicting outcome measures. Screeners across studies included (but were not restricted to): Number knowledge, digit span backwards, missing number, etc. Outcome measures included various group administered normed reference tests (such as the Stanford Achievement Test) or individually administered normed reference tests (such as the WJ-R). Most of the screening predictors had some degree of predictability on outcome measures (usually ranging from about .42-.72). Nor surprisingly, number knowledge was the highest predictor while missing number and digit span backwards also seemed to account for some degree of variance across studies. These findings correlate with the CHC (Cattell-Horn-Carroll) framework advocating that crystallized intelligence, fluid reasoning, and short-term memory are all important predictors of math performance (See Flanagan, Ortiz, Alfonso, & Mascolo, 2006).
• Fuchs et al. used the WJ-III to obtain a profile of their subject sample at the beginning of first grade. They used four CBM techniques in order to predict performance on the dependent measures at the end of second grade (Number ID/Counting, Fact Retrieval, CBM-Computation, and CBM-Applied Problems.) Outcome measures included the WRAT for calculation and Jordan’s Story Problems (using local norms to establish the percentile from a neighboring school district) for word reasoning. Using ROC curves, they indicated that their screeners had a good fit in targeting the number of students who would be identified as math disabled (however, there were some concerns--30 students were identified as MD (math disabled-calculation) by screening even though not by normative measure...so called “false alarms”. Seven students were identified as not MD-calculation even though the curriculum indicated that they were..so called “misses”. The numbers were 36 false alarms and 7 misses for MD-reasoning.
• Of the different screening measures-all but Number ID/Counting predict MD, with CBM-Applied Problems being the best predictor for both. The authors further hypothesize that screening measures that include a wide variety of problems (such as with applied problems) likely is a characteristic that helps with predictive power.
• I have a few thoughts on this study. Clearly, looking at the previous research has flagged that we probably should continue to focus on cognitive factors as guides to help with hypothesis generation (although clearly prior knowledge still seems to reign as most important in prediction..although that was not the focus of this study.
• I personally had concerns in the use of the WRAT and then Jordan’s Story Problems. One uses a nationally normed set of data, while the other used local norms from a nearby location. The authors indicated the sample was “local but representative”, although given all other outcome measures were nationally normed instruments--this posed as a problem for me.
• I was heartened to learn that three CBM measures performed adequately in predicting the presence of a MD and was also enlightened on the importance of applied problems (or math reasoning)--a construct that I think has been very much overlooked in much of the RTI literature on math in contrast to number of digits correct. However, when I see that there were over thirty “false alarms” for prediction--this is a cause for genuine concern. The implications go beyond providing “tutoring for those who do not need it.” It can lead to an attribution of “disability” when one might not necessarily exist..a Type I error. This can lead one to lower our expectations of students who may not necessarily present with deficiencies.
• My other concern was the difference in scores in the studies. Although the WRAT is noted to correlate at .71 with the WJ-III, the mean SS for the WJ-III at the beginning of first grade was 91 for MD and 71 for the WRAT at end of second grade. For word problems, the mean score for MD on WJ-III was 92 and about 66 on the Jordan. The standard deviations are pretty large for the WJ-III and WRAT (about 7-11 points) while smaller on the Jordan (about three points), but again I become concerned at how very dissimilar these profiles are. A large part of it can be explained by the calculation demands at beginning first (absolutely nothing outside of writing numbers) and end second (subtraction-possibly with regrouping)-although the magnitude is still very great. I might ask a quantitative expert to help me pull that apart further as this “applied practitioner” has been known to “stumble on the stats” at times.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, education, school psychology, psychological measurement, psychological testing, screening, progress monitoring, RIT, mathematics, arithmetic, Gq, quantitative

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