A good overview/review article of the evolution of brain networks with an excellent visual-graphic summary (I love good visual summaries, which I label in my blog as being a Gv Figure Hall of Fame)
A hierarchical model of early brain functional network development Wei Gao, Open access (you can download and read) in Trends in Cognitive Science
Abstract
Functional brain networks emerge prenatally, grow interactively during the first years of life, and optimize both within-network topology and between-network interactions as individuals age. This review summarizes research that has characterized this process over the past two decades, and aims to link functional network growth with emerging behaviors, thereby developing a more holistic understanding of the developing brain and behavior from a functional network perspective. This synthesis suggests that the development of the brain's functional networks follows an overlapping hierarchy, progressing from primary sensory/motor to socioemotional-centered development and finally to higher-order cognitive/executive control networks. Risk-related alterations, resilience factors, treatment effects, and novel therapeutic opportunities are also dis-cussed to encourage the consideration of future imaging-assisted methods for identifying risks and interventions.
Dynamic switching between brain networks predicts creative ability. Qunlin et al.,(2025). Click here read article and download PDF (Communications Biology) if you so desire.
Abstract
Creativity is hypothesized to arise from a mental state which balances spontaneous thought and cognitive control, corresponding to functional connectivity between the brain’s Default Mode (DMN) and Executive Control (ECN) Networks. Here, we conduct a large-scale, multi-center examination of this hypothesis. Employing a meta-analytic network neuroscience approach, we analyze resting-state fMRI and creative task performance across 10 independent samples from Austria, Canada, China, Japan, and the United States (N= 2433)—constituting the largest and most ethnically diverse creativity neuroscience study to date. Using time-resolved network analysis, we investigate the relationship between creativity (i.e., divergent thinking ability) and dynamic switching between DMN and ECN. We find that creativity, but not general intelligence, can be reliably predicted by the number of DMN-ECN switches. Importantly, we identify an inverted-U relationship between creativity and the degree of balance between DMN-ECN switching, suggesting that optimal creative performance requires balanced brain network dynamics. Furthermore, an independent task-fMRI validation study (N= 31) demonstrates higher DMN-ECN switching during creative idea generation (compared to a control condition) and replicates the inverted-U relationship. Therefore, we provide robust evidence across multi-center datasets that creativity is tied to the capacity to dynamically switch between brain networks supporting spontaneous and controlled cognition.
Contributions
of self-report and performance-based individual differences measures of
social cognitive ability to large-scale neural network functioning
Adaptive social
behavior appears to require flexible interaction between multiple
large-scale brain networks, including the executive control network
(ECN), the default mode network (DMN), and the salience network (SN), as
well as interactions with the perceptual processing systems these
networks function to modulate. Highly connected cortical “hub” regions
are also thought to facilitate interactions between these networks,
including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), dorsomedial
prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and anterior
insula (AI). However, less is presently known about the relationship
between these network functions and individual differences in
social-cognitive abilities. In the present study, 23 healthy adults (12
female) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while
performing a visually based social judgment task (requiring the
evaluation of social dominance in faces). Participants also completed
both self-report and performance-based measures of emotional
intelligence (EI), as well as measures of personality and facial
perception ability. During scanning, social judgment, relative to a
control condition involving simple perceptual judgment of facial
features in the same stimuli, activated hub regions associated with each
of the networks mentioned above (observed clusters included: bilateral
DLPFC, DMPFC/ACC, AI, and ventral visual cortex). Interestingly,
self-reported and performance-based measures of social-cognitive ability
showed opposing associations with these patterns of activation.
Specifically, lower self-reported EI and lower openness in personality
both independently predicted greater activation within hub regions of
the SN, DMN, and ECN (i.e., the DLPFC, DMPFC/ACC, and AI clusters); in
contrast, in the same analyses greater scores on performance-based EI
measures and on facial perception tasks independently predicted greater
activation within hub regions of the SN and ECN (the DLPFC and AI
clusters), and also in the ventral visual cortex. These findings suggest
that lower confidence in one’s own social-cognitive abilities may
promote the allocation of greater cognitive resources to, and improve
the performance of, social-cognitive functions.
Keywords
Social CognitionLarge-Scale Neural NetworksIndividual DifferencesEmotional IntelligenceSocial Visual Perception
People Mind Wander More During Massed Than Spaced Inductive Learning.Metcalfe, Janet; Xu, Judy
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Nov 30 , 2015, No Pagination Specified. http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.lib.umn.edu/10.1037/xlm0000216
Abstract
This article investigates the relation between mind wandering and the spacing effect in inductive learning. Participants studied works of art by different artists grouped in blocks, where works by a particular artist were either presented all together successively (the massed condition), or interleaved with the works of other artists (the spaced condition). The works of 24 artists were shown, with 12, 15, or 18 works by each artist being provided as exemplars. Later, different works by the same artists were presented for a test of the artists’ identity. During the course of studying these works, participants were probed for mind wandering. It was found that people mind wandered more when the exemplars were presented in a massed rather than in a spaced manner, especially as the task progressed. There was little mind wandering and little difference between massed and spaced conditions toward the beginning of study. People were better able to correctly attribute the new works to the appropriate artist (inductive learning) when (a) they were in the spaced condition and (b) they had not been mind wandering. This research suggests that inductive learning may be influenced by mind wandering and that the impairment in learning with massed practice (compared to spaced practice) may be attributable, at least in part, to attentional factors—people are “on task” less fully when the stimuli are massed rather than spaced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)
[This is an OBG (oldie but goodie) post first posted December 16, 2011 at the Brain Clock blog]
Man has always known that the brain is the center of human behavior. Early attempts at understanding which locations in the brain controlled different functions were non-scientific and included such practices as phrenology. This pseudoscience believed that by feeling the bumps of a persons head it was possible to draw conclusions about specific brain functions and traits of the person.
(double click on any image to enlarge)
Eventually brain science revealed that different regions of the brain where specialized for different specific cognitive processes (but it was not related to the phrenological brain bump maps). This has been called the modular or functional specialization view of the brain, which is grounded in the conclusion that different brain areas acted more-or-less as independent mechanisms for completing specific cognitive functions.
One of the most exciting developments in contemporary neuroscience is the recognition that the human brain processes information via different brain circuits or loops which at a higher level can be studied as large scale brain networks. Although the modular view still provides important brain insights, the accumulating evidence suggests that it has serious limitations and might in fact be misleading (Bresslor and Menon, 2010). One of the best summaries of this cutting edge research is that by Bresslor and Menon.
Large scale brain network research suggests that cognitive functioning is the result of interactions or communication between different brain systems distributed throughout the brain. That is, when performing a particular task, just one isolated brain area is not working alone. Instead, different areas of the brain, often far apart from each other within the geographic space of the brain, are communicating through a fast-paced synchronized set of brain signals. These networks can be considered preferred pathways for sending signals back and forth to perform a specific set of cognitive or motor behaviors.
To understand preferred neural pathways, think of walking on a college campus where there are paved sidewalks connecting different buildings that house specialized knowledge and activities. If you have spent anytime on a college campus, one typically finds foot-worn short cuts in the grass that are the preferred (and more efficient) means by which most people move between building A and B. The combined set of frequently used paved and unpaved pathways are the most efficient or preferred pathways for moving efficiently between buildings. The human brain has developed preferred communication pathways that link together different brain circuits or loops in order to quickly and efficiently complete specific tasks.
According to Bresslor and Menon (2010), “a large-scale functional network can therefore be defined as a collection of interconnected brain areas that interact to perform circumscribed functions.” More importantly, component brain areas in these large-scale brain networks perform different roles. Some act as controllers or task switchers that coordinate, direct and synchronize the involvement of other brain networks. Other brain networks handle the flow of sensory or motor information and engage in conscious manipulation of the information in the form of “thinking.”
As illustrated in the figure above, neuroscientists have identified a number of core brain network nodes or circuits. The important new insight is that these various nodes or circuits are integrated together into a grander set of higher-level core functional brain networks. Three important core networks are receiving considerable attention in explaining human behavior.
Major functional brain networks
The default mode (DMN) or default brain network (shown in blue) is what your brain does when not engaged in specific tasks. It is the busy or active part of your brain when you are mentally passive. According to Bresslor and Brennon the “DMN is seen to collectively comprise an integrated system for autobiographical, self-monitoring and social cognitive functions.” It has also been characterized as responsible for REST (rapid episodic spontaneous thinking). In other words, this is the spontaneous mind wandering and internal self-talk and thinking we engage in when not working on a specific task or, when completing a task that is so automatized (e.g., driving a car) that our mind starts to wander and generate spontaneous thoughts. As I have discussed previously (at IM-HOME blog), the default network is responsible for the unquiet or noisy mind. And, it is likely that people differ in amount of spontaneous mind wandering (which can be both positive creative thinking or distracting thoughts), with some having a very unquiet mind that is hard to turn off, while others can turn off the inner thought generation and self-talk and display tremendous self-focus or controlled attention to perform a cognitively or motorically demanding task. A very interesting discussion of the serendipitous discovery and explanation of the default brain network is in the following soon to be published scientific article.
The salience network (shown in yellow) is a controller or network switcher. It monitors information from within (internal input) and from the external world arounding us, which is constantly bombarding us with information. Think of the salience network as the air traffic controller of the brain. Its job is to scan all information bombarding us from the outside world and also that from within our own brains. This controller decides which information is most urgent, task relevant, and which should receive priority in the que of sending brain signals to areas of the brain for processing. This controlling network must suppress either the default or executive networks depending on the task at hand. It must suppress one, and activate the other. Needless to say, this decision making and distribution of information must require exquisite and efficient neural timing as regulated by the brain clock(s).
Finally, the central-executive network (CEN; shown in red) “is engaged in higher-order cognitive and attentional control.” In other words, when you must engage your conscious brain to work on a problem, place information in your working memory as you think, focus your attention on a task or problem, etc., you are “thinking” and must focus your controlled attention. As I understand this research, the salience or controller network is a multi-switching mechanism that is constantly initiating dynamic switching between the REST (sponatenous and often creative unique mind wandering) and thinking networks to best match the current demands you are facing.
According to Bresslor and Melon, not only is this large scale brain network helping us better understand normal cognitive and motor behavior, it is providing insights into clinical disorders of the brain. Poor synchronization between the three major brain networks has been implicated in Alzheimer’s, schizophrenia, autism, the manic phase of bipolar and Parkinson’s (Bresslor and Melon, 2010), disorders that have all been linked to a brain or neural timing (i.e, the brain clock or clocks). I also believe that ADHD would be implicated. If the synchronized millisecond based communication between and within these large networks is compromised, and if the network traffic controller (the salience network) is disrupted in particular, efficient and normal cognition or motor behavior can be compromised.
I find this emerging research fascinating. I believe it provides a viable working hypothesis to explain why different brain fitness or training neurotechnologies have shown promise in improving cognitive function in working memory, ADHD, and other clinical disorders. It is my current hypothesis that various brain training technologies may focus on different psychological constructs (e.g., working memory; planning; focus or controlled attention), but their effectiveness may all be directly or indirectly facilitating the sychronization between the major brain networks. More specifically, by strengthening the ability to invoke the salience or controller network, a person can learn to suppress, inhibit or silence the REST-producing default brain network more efficiently, long enough to exert more controlled attention or focus when invoking the thinking central executive network. Collectively these brain fitness technologies may all improving the use of those abilities called executive function, or what I have called the personal brain manager. Those technologies that focus on rhythm or brain timing are those I find most fascinating. For example, the recent example of the use of melodic intonation therapy with Congresswoman Gabby Giffords (she suffered serious brain trauma due to a gun shot) demonstrates how rhythm-based brain timing therapies may help repair destroyed preferred and efficient neural pathways or, develop new pathways, much like the development of a new foot worn pathway in the grass on a college campus if a preferred pathway is disrupted by a new building, temporary work or rennovation, or some other destruction of a preferred and efficient network of movement path.
To understand the beauty of the synchronized brain, it is best to see the patterns of brain network connections in action. Below is a video called the “Meditating Mind.” I urge you to view the video for a number of reasons.
A number of observations should be clear. First, during the first part of the video the brain is seen as active even during a resting state. This is visual evidence of the silent private dialogue (REST) of the default mode or network of the brain. Next, the video mentions the rhythm of increased and decreased neural activation as the brain responds to no visual information or presentation of a video. The changes in color and sound demonstrate the rich rhythmic synchronization of large and different parts of the brain, depending on whether the brain is engaged in a passive or active cognitive task. The beauty of the rapidly changing and spreading communication should make it obvious that efficient rhythmic synchronization of timing of brain signals to and from different networks or circuits is critical to efficient brain functioning.
Finally, the contrast between the same brain under normal conditions and when engaged in a form of meditation is striking. Clearly when this person’s brain is mediating, the brain is responding with a change in rates and frequency of brain network activation and synchrony. As I described in my personal IM-HOME based experience post, mastering Interactive Metronome (IM) therapy requires “becoming one with the tone”…which sounds similar to the language of those who engage in various forms of meditation. Could it be that the rhythmic demans of IM, which require an individual to “lock on” to the auditory tone and stay in that synchronized, rhythmic and repetitive state for as long as possible, might be similar to the underlying mechanics of some forms of meditation, which also seek to suppress irrelevant and distracting thoughts and eventually “let the mind go"---posibsly to follow a specific train of thought with complete and distraction free focus.
Yes…this is speculation. I am trying to connect research-based and personal experience dots. It is exciting. My IM-HOME based induce personal focus experience makes sense from the perspective of the function and interaction between the three major large scale brain networks.
Yet more research indicating the importance of brain network connectivity, this time demonstrating the detrimental effects of smoking on brain network communication, especially with the executive control and default brain networks. Take away… smoking may impair the brain networks involved in cognitive control and make stopping smoking even more difficult.
And more evidence for ADHD as being related to poor brain network connectivity. (click here for more posts) Click on images to enlarge.
And, again, this extant research is consistent with the three-level hypothesized explanation of the impact of certain brain training programs on controlled attention (click here for special white paper as well as on-line PPT modules and keynote video presentation of this model).
I just skimmed the article below. I like the way it uses the terms external/internal-directed (ECD/ICD) cognition framework to discuss the differences and relations between the activities of the default brain network and the executive control networks (click here for excellent article explaining these two networks)
Click on images to enlarge
I resonate to this EDC/IDC framework as it is relevant to my white paper on improving attentional control (via IM training--although the paper, IMHO, is more about how different brain training programs may work). That hypothesized model is in the figure above, and can be found at the MindHub.
First, forget multitasking and try mono-tasking. Focus on just one thing...it may be beneficial.
Next, I have frequently blogged about the default mode or default brain network (Brain Clock posts; IM-HOME post). The default mode (which is estimated to be active approximately 40% of our waking day) has been implicated in how our mind, when idling or resting, is very active--it does not rest while resting. Difficulty quieting the default network has also been implicated in a variety of clinical disorders such as ADHD, Alzheimers, schizophrenia, and autism. This literature is now frequently referred to as mind wandering research (see Brain Clock mind wandering posts). The following is a nice brief overview of the default brain network.
I have also suggested that some brain fitness technologies (Interactive Metronome in particular; conflict of interest disclosure--I serve as a paid external consultant to IM regarding research) are achieving success by either directly or indirectly training controlled, focused attention, which requires shutting down and inhibiting the mind wandering predisposition of the default mode network. I have posted both a set of PPT slides and the video of my recent IM keynote presentation at the Brain Clock blog where I presented the relevant research and hypotheses in detail.
Finally, a more lengthy, thought provoking video is presented last. This video makes it clear that the brain is best conceptualized as an evolving interconnected network.
Keynote presentation by Dr. Kevin McGrew at the 2012 Interactive Metronome professional conference in San Antonio, Texas. Dr. McGrew
presents his three-levels of interpretation research and theory-based
hypothesis re: the reason IM improves cognitive performance across
different domains. The primary message focuses on improving focus
(controlled attention), working memory and executive functions. Recent
brain network research implicates improve brain network communication
via white matter tracts, particularly the Parietal-Frontal Integration
Theory (P-FIT) of intelligence.
Taping was from a distance so the audio, at
times, is weak. Listening with ear buds suggested. Also, a non-audio version of the complete set of PPT slides is available for more reflective viewing via my SlideShare account.
[Heads up - the "cat" video clip near the beginning is not a mistake. Don't think that YouTube has done something weird--I comment on the interpretation of the cat video after it is over]
Below is a snippet of a part of the larger video that explains the key concepts and PPT-based animations that are used in the Keynote presentation.
Finally, if you are unfamiliar with the IM technology, you might want to watch the following brief introductory video before viewing the Keynote video. The video is a bit dated with regard to current understanding of how IM may work, as explained in the Keynote video above. However, it is a good video for understanding the task demands of IM
As noted in my conflict of interest disclosure statement, I am an external paid consultant to IM (Director of Research and Science)
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, January 2012, Vol. 16, No. 1
I just skimmed this excellent article which is consistent with the hypothesis that problems with controlled attention (focus) may be responsible for a number of the behavioral symptoms of ADHD....and this is due to the poor ability to suppress the random self-talk of the default brain network. As per the IQs Reading feature, an annotated copy of the article is now available.
Based on my reading and research regarding Interactive Metronome technology, I advanced the position that the efficacy of this technology in improving focus or controlled attention is that it helps to "quiet the busy mind" that is due to the REST (random, episodic, spontaneous thought or thinking) of the default brain network. In simple terms, poor ability to suppress or quiet the default network results in poor controlled attention and focus...and one has a hard time with inhibiting the intrusion of these task-irrelevant thoughts when trying to engage in controlled, deliberate cognitive tasks.
This article reviews research that suggests that ADHD may be a default brain network disorder. The authors state "In 2007, Sonuga-Barke and Castellanos suggested that ADHD could be considered a default network disorder"...and the authors of the current article agree.
Most of my readers are aware of my interest in brain-clock based neurotechnologies particularly as they relate to improving cognitive functioning. All posts related to this area of interest, as well as posts linking readers to other neuroscience developments, can be found at the Brain Clock blog.
I drill down deeper into Interactive Metronome as a guest blogger at the IM-Home blog. Now all my IM-related posts can be viewed via one URL. I hope readers check out these posts and become more aware of the exciting neurotechnologies that are emerging based on the concept of temporal processing and the human brain clock.
Most of my readers are aware of my interest in brain-clock based neurotechnologies particularly as they relate to improving cognitive functioning. All posts related to this area of interest, as well as posts linking reader to other neuroscience developments, can be found at the Brain Clock blog.
I drill down deeper into Interactive Metronome as a guest blogger at the IM-Home blog. Now all my IMr-relatedposts can be viewed via one URL. I hope readers check out these posts and become more aware of the exciting neurotechnologies that are emerging based on the concept of temporal processing and the human brain clock.
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