IQ's Corner

Monday, August 30, 2021

Déjà vu All Over Again: A Unitary Biological Mechanism for Intelligence Is (Probably) Untenable

https://www.mdpi.com/2079-3200/8/2/24

Abstract
Nearly a century ago, Spearman proposed that "specific factors can be regarded as the 'nuts and bolts' of cognitive performance…, while the general factor is the mental energy available to power the specific engines". Geary (2018; 2019) takes Spearman's analogy of "mental energy" quite literally and doubles-down on the notion by proposing that a unitary energy source, the mitochondria, explains variations in both cognitive function and health-related outcomes. This idea is reminiscent of many earlier attempts to describe a low-level biological determinant of general intelligence. While Geary does an admirable job developing an innovative theory with specific and testable predictions, this new theory suffers many of the shortcomings of previous attempts at similar goals. We argue that Geary's theory is generally implausible, and does not map well onto known psychological and genetic properties of intelligence or its relationship to health and fitness. While Geary's theory serves as an elegant model of "what could be", it is less successful as a description of "what is". View Full-Text
Keywords: intelligence; processing speed; attention; working memory; heritability

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Kevin S. McGrew, PhD
Educational & School Psychologist
Director
Institute for Applied Psychometrics (IAP)
https://www.themindhub.com
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Sunday, August 15, 2021

Frontiers | Neuropsychological Development of Cool and Hot Executive Functions Between 6 and 12 Years of Age: A Systematic Review | Psychology

Frontiers | Neuropsychological Development of Cool and Hot Executive Functions Between 6 and 12 Years of Age: A Systematic Review | Psychology
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.687337/full

Neuropsychological Development of Cool and Hot Executive Functions Between 6 and 12 Years of Age: A Systematic Review

L. Fernández García, A. Merchán, +1 author María Teresa Daza González
Published in Frontiers in Psychology 2021

Previous studies on the development of executive functions (EFs) in middle childhood have traditionally focused on cognitive, or "cool," EFs: working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. However, knowledge of the development of socio-emotional, or "hot," EFs, such as delay of gratification, decision-making and theory of mind, is more limited. The main aims of this systematic review were to characterize the typical development of both the primary cool and hot EFs in middle childhood, and to identify the main tools for evaluating EFs as a whole. We conducted a systematic search on studies of cognitive and socio-emotional EFs published in the last 5 years in Pubmed, PsycInfo, and WoS databases. Of 44 studies selected, we found a variety of tasks measuring cool EFs, while measures of hot EFs were limited. Nevertheless, the available data suggest that cool and hot components follow distinct, but related, developmental trajectories during middle childhood

Saturday, August 14, 2021

Explaining the high working memory capacity of gifted children: Contributions of processing skills and executive control - ScienceDirect

Explaining the high working memory capacity of gifted children: Contributions of processing skills and executive control - ScienceDirect
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691821001086?via%3Dihub

Explaining the high working memory capacity of gifted children: Contributions of processing skills and executive control.

Alexandre Aubry, C. Gonthier, B. Bourdin
Published 2021
Medicine
Acta psychologica

Intellectually gifted children tend to demonstrate especially high working memory capacity, an ability that holds a critical role in intellectual functioning. What could explain the differences in working memory performance between intellectually gifted and nongifted children? We investigated this issue by measuring working memory capacity with complex spans in a sample of 55 gifted and 55 nongifted children. Based on prior studies, we expected the higher working memory capacity of intellectually gifted children to be driven by more effective executive control, as measured using the Attention Network Test. The findings confirmed that intellectually gifted children had higher working memory capacity than typical children, as well as more effective executive attention. Surprisingly, however, working memory differences between groups were not mediated by differences in executive attention. Instead, it appears that gifted children resolve problems faster in the processing phase of the working memory task, which leaves them more time to refresh to-be-remembered items. This faster problem solving speed mediated their advantage in working memory capacity. Importantly, this effect was specific to speed on complex problems: low-level processing speed, as measured with the Attention Network Test, did not contribute to the higher working memory capacity of gifted children.

Friday, August 13, 2021

When academic achievement (also) reflects personality: Using the personality-achievement saturation hypothesis (PASH) to explain differential associations between achievement measures and personality traits. - PsycNET

When academic achievement (also) reflects personality: Using the personality-achievement saturation hypothesis (PASH) to explain differential associations between achievement measures and personality traits. - PsycNET
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-74431-001

Citation
Hübner, N., Spengler, M., Nagengast, B., Borghans, L., Schils, T., & Trautwein, U. (2021). When academic achievement (also) reflects personality: Using the personality-achievement saturation hypothesis (PASH) to explain differential associations between achievement measures and personality traits. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000571

Abstract
Students' academic achievement is a key predictor of various life outcomes and is commonly used for selection as well as for educational monitoring and accountability. With regard to achievement indicators, a differentiation has traditionally been drawn between grades and standardized tests. There is initial, albeit inconclusive, evidence that these indicators might differentially reflect students' personality as encapsulated in the Big Five personality traits as well as measures of cognitive abilities. In this article, we propose the personality-achievement saturation hypothesis (PASH) as an overarching model that describes the association between achievement indicators and personality. The PASH suggests that the differentiation between grades and tests is too simplistic and that associations between personality and achievement instead vary across five main features of the achievement measures that are used: level of standardization, relevance for the student, curricular validity, instructional sensitivity, and cognitive ability saturation. On the basis of findings from prior studies, we focused in particular on conscientiousness and openness to test the PASH. We used data from three large-scale studies (total N = 14,953) and aggregated our findings across these studies. In line with the PASH, the Big Five trait of conscientiousness was most strongly related to measures that were less standardized and less saturated with cognitive ability but higher on curriculum validity, relevance, and instructional sensitivity. In addition, openness was most strongly related to measures that were higher on standardization and cognitive ability saturation but lower on relevance, curriculum validity, and instructional sensitivity in English. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

Connections between mathematics and reading development: Numerical cognition mediates relations between foundational competencies and later academic outcomes. - PsycNET

Connections between mathematics and reading development: Numerical cognition mediates relations between foundational competencies and later academic outcomes. - PsycNET
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-74878-001

Citation
Spencer, M., Fuchs, L. S., Geary, D. C., & Fuchs, D. (2021). Connections between mathematics and reading development: Numerical cognition mediates relations between foundational competencies and later academic outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000670

Abstract
We examined longitudinal relations between 1st-grade cognitive predictors (early nonverbal reasoning, processing speed, listening comprehension, working memory, calculation skill, word-problem solving, word-reading fluency, attentive behavior, and numerical cognition) and 2nd-grade academic outcomes (calculations, word-problem solving, and word reading) in 370 children (Mage = 6.55 years, SDage = 0.33 years at the start of the study) who were identified as at-risk or not-at-risk for mathematics disability. Path analysis mediation models revealed that numerical cognition, assessed at an intermediary timepoint, mediated the effects of processing speed, working memory, calculation skill, word-problem solving, and attentive behavior on all 3 outcomes. Findings indicate that multiple early domain-general cognitive abilities are related to later mathematics and reading outcomes and that numerical cognition processes, which may track ease of forming symbol-concept associations, predict later performance across both academic domains. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

Tuesday, August 10, 2021

General intelligence and the dark triad: A meta-analysis. - PsycNET

General intelligence and the dark triad: A meta-analysis. - PsycNET
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-71827-001

Citation
Michels, M. (2021). General intelligence and the dark triad: A meta-analysis. Journal of Individual Differences.Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000352

Abstract
The dark triad of personality (D3)—consisting of psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism—is a set of socially aversive personality traits. All three traits encompass disagreeable behavior and a particular disregard for the well-being of others, but also a tendency to strategic and deceptive manipulation of social environments in order to attain one′s goals. To exercise these complex manipulations effectively it seems beneficial to have high cognitive abilities. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted to examine possible relationships between intelligence and the dark triad. A total of 143 studies were identified to estimate the strength of relationships between the D3 and general, verbal, and nonverbal intelligence. The results indicate that none of the constructs of the dark triad are meaningfully related to intelligence. However, there was a small negative correlation between intelligence and Factor 2 psychopathy. The substantial heterogeneity regarding the observed effect sizes could not be explained with meta-regression for the most part. There was no evidence for a publication bias. In total, the results challenge the notion that the dark triad is an adaptive set of personality traits that enables individuals to effectively manipulate their social surroundings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

Saturday, August 07, 2021

Recent developments, current challenges, and future directions in electrophysiological approaches to studying intelligence - ScienceDirect

Recent developments, current challenges, and future directions in electrophysiological approaches to studying intelligence - ScienceDirect
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160289621000532

Abstract

EEG studies represent an important sub-discipline in the field of intelligence research and have significant potential to advance the theoretical understanding and practical applications of the construct. This commentary reviews key themes and major developments in the field from the last several decades, and outlines open questions and future directions for the next phase of research. Two main areas of progress in recent years relate to (1) improvements in study design and psychometric approaches, and (2) increased integration with cognitive psychology and neuroscience. In turn, these advances have clarified several themes and pressing issues. These include: The need to establish the replicability and effect sizes of key effects, the need to explicitly attend to the distinction between trait- and task-related sources of variance in correlations between intelligence and EEG variables, the need to systematically identify and test moderators of those relationships, the need for greater use of formal modeling at the level of measurement and theory, and the need for continued integration of theoretical advances from related disciplines. We argue that an increased focus on these issues can yield rapid progress in this area over the coming years. The commentary concludes with suggestions for both immediate priorities and long-term directions in basic and applied EEG research on intelligence.

Friday, August 06, 2021

Parsing information flow in speeded cognitive tasks: The role of g in perception and decision time. - PsycNET

Parsing information flow in speeded cognitive tasks: The role of g in perception and decision time. - PsycNET
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-72829-001

Thursday, August 05, 2021

Full artiThe relation between working memory, number sense, and mathematics throughout primary education in children with and without mathematical difficulties

Number sense and working memory contribute to mathematical development throughout primary school. However, it is still unclear how the contributions of each of these predictors may change across development and whether the cognitive contribution is the same for children with and without mathematical difficulties. The aim of the two studies in this paper was to shed light on these topics. In a cross-sectional design, a typically developing group of children (study 1; N = 459, Grades 1-4) and a group with mathematical difficulties (study 2; N = 61, Grades 4-6) completed a battery of number sense and working memory tests, as well as a measure of arithmetic competence. Results of study 1 indicated that number sense was important in first grade, while working memory gained importance in second grade, before predictive value of both predictors waned. Number sense and working memory supported mathematics development independently from one another from Grade 1. Analysis of task demands showed that typically developing children rely on comprehension and visualization of quantity-to-number associations in early development. Later in development, pupils rely on comparing larger numerals and working memory until automatization. Children with mathematical difficulties were less able to employ number sense during mathematical operations, and thus might remain dependent on their working memory resources during arithmetic tasks. This suggests that children with mathematical difficulties need aid to employ working memory for mathematics from an early age to be able to automatize mathematical abilities later in development.

Full article: The relation between working memory, number sense, and mathematics throughout primary education in children with and without mathematical difficulties
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09297049.2021.1959905

Thursday, July 29, 2021

Myths and misconceptions about intelligence: A study of 35 myths - ScienceDirect

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886921003895
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886921003895?via%3Dihub

Abstract This study is concerned with the extent to which people believe in, and endorse, various myths about intelligence and intelligence testing. It examined the prevalence of myths about intelligence as set out in a recent book (Warne, 2020). Participants (N = 275) completed a questionnaire in which they rated the extent to which they thought various statements/facts about intelligence were essentially true or false. In all, eighteen of these myths were rated as true (definitely or partly), two as definitely false and six probably false by the majority of the participants. There were no significant demographic or personality correlates of the total correct score (determined by rating the myth as false). The discussion considers why, in this important area of psychology, myths, misconceptions and ignorance seem so difficult to dispel. Limitations of this, and similar, studies are noted, and implications are discussed.

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Kevin S. McGrew, PhD
Educational Psychologist
Director
Institute for Applied Psychometrics (IAP)
www.themindhub.com
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Monday, July 26, 2021

A new beginning of intelligence research. Designing the playground - ScienceDirect

A new beginning of intelligence research. Designing the playground - ScienceDirect
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016028962100043X?via%3Dihub

Protzko, J., & Colom, R. (2021). A new beginning of intelligence research. Designing the playground. Intelligence, 87, 101559.

Abstract
Here we present several points for designing a probable playground concerning a new beginning of intelligence research within the XXI Century: the nature, definition, and measurement of the construct of interest, its development across the lifespan, its enhancement by varied means, and its place within the already identified human psychological traits. Predictions can go wrong when those who make them 1) assume that trends will be linear, 2) use script-writing assuming that they know what the responses to any trend will be, and 3) conflate primary facts with their interpretation. With these pitfalls in mind, we predict: 1) a proliferation of alternate models of the positive manifold; 2) The derailment of the field in the next decade or two with a new trendy research angle; 3) The gradual abandonment of classic IQ tests for intelligence research in favor of alternative measurements. We see a bright future for intelligence research, but dark spots cannot be discarded.

Wednesday, July 21, 2021

Variability and Stability in Cognitive Abilities Are Largely Genetic Later in Life | Semantic Scholar

Variability and Stability in Cognitive Abilities Are Largely Genetic Later in Life | Semantic Scholar
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Variability-and-Stability-in-Cognitive-Abilities-in-lomin/1e03a69d741d1b1f1bf2229b066cce818fe41961?utm_source=alert_email&utm_content=FeedPaper&utm_campaign=AlertEmails_DAILY&utm_term=FeedPaper&email_index=0-0-0&utm_medium=2363016

The powerful quantitative genetic design of identical and fraternal twins reared apart (112 pairs) and matched twins reared together (111 pairs) was employed to assess the extent of genetic influence on individual differences in cognitive abilities during the last half of the life span. General cognitive ability yielded a heritability estimate of about .80 in two assessments 3 years apart as part of the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. This is one of the highest heritabilities reported for a behavioral trait. Across the two ages, average heritabilities are about .60 for verbal tests, .50 for spatial and speedof-processing tests, and .40 for memory tests. For general cognitive ability, the phenotypic stability across the 3 years is .92 and stable genetic factors account for nearly 90% this stability. These findings suggest that general cognitive ability is a reasonable target for research that aims to identify specific genes for complex traits.

Sunday, July 18, 2021

The Big Five Personality Traits and Academic Performance: A Meta-Analysis. | Semantic Scholar

The Big Five Personality Traits and Academic Performance: A Meta-Analysis. | Semantic Scholar
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Big-Five-Personality-Traits-and-Academic-A-Mammadov/a3402eeb709a39e23f8dcee1dad5663e08afab33?utm_source=alert_email&utm_content=FeedPaper&utm_campaign=AlertEmails_DAILY&utm_term=FeedPaper&email_index=0-2-2&utm_medium=2352302

This meta-analysis reports the most comprehensive assessment to date of the strength of the relationships between the Big Five personality traits and academic performance by synthesizing 267 independent samples (N = 413,074) in 228 unique studies. It also examined the incremental validity of personality traits above and beyond cognitive ability in predicting academic performance. Operational validities of the most popular six personality measures were compared and reported. The combined effect of cognitive ability and personality traits explained 27.8% of the variance in academic performance. Cognitive ability was the most important predictor with a relative importance of 64%. Conscientiousness emerged as a strong and robust predictor of performance, even when controlling for cognitive ability, and accounted for 28% of the explained variance in academic performance. A significant moderating effect of education level was observed. The relationship of academic performance with openness, extraversion, and agreeableness demonstrated significantly larger effect sizes at the elementary/middle school level compared to the subsequent levels. Openness, despite its weak overall relative importance, was found to be an important determinant of student performance in the early years of school

The Role of Cognitive Self-Report Measure Type in Predicting Cognitive Decline Among Older Adults: A Systematic Review. | Semantic Scholar

The Role of Cognitive Self-Report Measure Type in Predicting Cognitive Decline Among Older Adults: A Systematic Review. | Semantic Scholar
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Role-of-Cognitive-Self-Report-Measure-Type-in-A-Wion-Hill/4b4bf38d963ef145b6126074c8860f1915afcbe5?utm_source=alert_email&utm_content=FeedPaper&utm_campaign=AlertEmails_DAILY&utm_term=FeedPaper&email_index=0-1-1&utm_medium=2352302

Journal of geriatric psychiatry and neurology

Many types of items are used to measure self-reported cognition, resulting in heterogeneity across studies. Certain cognitive self-report measure types may be more predictive of future decline. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic review was to compare whether specific types of cognitive self-report measures better predict risk for cognitive decline over time when measures are directly compared within the same study. The PRISMA criteria guided the review. Eligibility criteria included: longitudinal studies, outcome of cognitive decline, at least 2 different cognitive self-report measures, and no cognitive impairment at baseline. Nineteen studies were included in the final review. A narrative synthesis of results was completed, resulting in 3 thematic groups of comparisons across self-reported measure types. Self-reported memory decline with worry and peer perceptions of memory were associated with the highest risk for cognitive decline. Future longitudinal investigations of self-reported cognitive problems should focus on using measures that may be most sensitive to predicting cognitive decline

Friday, July 09, 2021

Network and hierarchical g-CHC analysis of WJ IV

Kevin McGrew

⁦‪@iqmobile‬⁩

Network & hierarchical #g-#CHC #WJIV analysis contradicts bifactor g-centric researchers who analyze #IQ tests. Shows need to use multiple methods to investigate structure of IQ tests. COI-I have $ COI in the WJ IV as a coauthor #schoolpsychologists tinyurl.com/459dvk2a

7/8/21, 12:13 PM

******************************************************

Kevin McGrew, PhD

Educational Psychologist

Director, Institute for Applied Psychometrics

IAP

www.themindhub.com

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J. Intell. | Free Full-Text | Do Non-Decision Times Mediate the Association between Age and Intelligence across Different Content and Process Domains?

https://www.mdpi.com/2079-3200/8/3/33

Wednesday, June 23, 2021

EmoSocio: An open access sociometry-enriched Emotional Intelligence model | Semantic Scholar

Significant efforts have been allocated over the last thirty years towards the definition and measurement of the Emotional Intelligence (EI) construct. Several EI theories and models have been produced to support psychological assessment processes. However, barriers are identified for their wide adoption and exploitation by social scientists. The absence of a common structured format to represent concepts in EI models has resulted in lack of clarity and consistency, while hindering comparison, validation and extensive evaluation processes. Provision of open access to such models and measurement instruments has not been promoted so far, however, considered crucial for their wide adoption. Furthermore, the inclusion of indexes from the sociometry domain can facilitate participatory modeling by multidisciplinary scientists during the development of social and emotional training programs. To address these challenges, we propose EmoSocio, an open access Emotional Intelligence Model, built upon a detailed comparison and synthesis of the main constructs represented in widely accepted EI models and enriched with sociometric indexes at an individual and group level. Upon detailing the methodological approach followed for the development of the EmoSocio model, we present the EI and social constructs of the model, followed by an assessment of the EI part in terms of reliability and validity. EmoSocio is also represented in a semantically-enriched format in the form of an ontology. Our ambition is to provide an open access EI model that can be used by multidisciplinary scientists to evaluate psychological assessment processes and develop interventions, aiming to strengthen interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies.

EmoSocio: An open access sociometry-enriched Emotional Intelligence model | Semantic Scholar
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/EmoSocio%3A-An-open-access-sociometry-enriched-model-Fotopoulou-Zafeiropoulos/b28fd20f5060f61952287c343bb6a5771bbf601c?utm_source=alert_email&utm_content=FeedPaper&utm_campaign=AlertEmails_DAILY&utm_term=FeedPaper&email_index=0-5-5&utm_medium=2273866

Friday, June 18, 2021

Full article: Considering the boundaries of intellectual disability: Using philosophy of science to make sense of borderline cases

Considering the boundaries of intellectual disability: Using philosophy of science to make sense of borderline cases
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09515089.2021.1914832

ABSTRACT

Who should be diagnosed with intellectual disability and who should not? For borderline cases, the answer to this question may be as difficult to decide on as determining the borderline between being bald or not. While going bald may be upsetting to some, it is also an inevitable and relatively undramatic course of nature. In contrast, getting a diagnosis of intellectual disability is likely to have more far- reaching consequences. This makes the question of where the cutoff point for intellectual disability lies more imperative. Philosophy of science may help psychologists to understand the nature of this dilemma in a more profound manner. This article builds on the sorites paradox to explore the vagueness that surrounds the concept of intellectual disability and the consequences of this vagueness for the diagnostic process. While epistemicists argue that vagueness is a consequence of our limited knowledge of the world that we live in, semantic theorists claim that there is nothing that we do not know, but that our language allows for indecisiveness. What these different lines of understanding mean for psychologists who are diagnosing intellectual disability, is described in this article. Furthermore, the article discusses practical implications of these philosophical underpinnings.

J. Intell. | Free Full-Text | How Multidimensional Is Emotional Intelligence? Bifactor Modeling of Global and Broad Emotional Abilities of the Geneva Emotional Competence Test

File under Gei in CHC taxonomy

J. Intell. | Free Full-Text | How Multidimensional Is Emotional Intelligence? Bifactor Modeling of Global and Broad Emotional Abilities of the Geneva Emotional Competence Test
https://www.mdpi.com/2079-3200/9/1/14

Abstract
Drawing upon multidimensional theories of intelligence, the current paper evaluates if the Geneva Emotional Competence Test (GECo) fits within a higher-order intelligence space and if emotional intelligence (EI) branches predict distinct criteria related to adjustment and motivation. Using a combination of classical and S-1 bifactor models, we find that (a) a first-order oblique and bifactor model provide excellent and comparably fitting representation of an EI structure with self-regulatory skills operating independent of general ability, (b) residualized EI abilities uniquely predict criteria over general cognitive ability as referenced by fluid intelligence, and (c) emotion recognition and regulation incrementally predict grade point average (GPA) and affective engagement in opposing directions, after controlling for fluid general ability and the Big Five personality traits. Results are qualified by psychometric analyses suggesting only emotion regulation has enough determinacy and reliable variance beyond a general ability factor to be treated as a manifest score in analyses and interpretation. Findings call for renewed, albeit tempered, research on EI as a multidimensional intelligence and highlight the need for refined assessment of emotional perception, understanding, and management to allow focused analyses of different EI abilities. View Full-Text
Keywords: emotional intelligence; Geneva Emotional Competence Test (GECo); Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory; multidimensionality; S-1 Bifactor Modeling

Saturday, June 05, 2021

Overlapping and dissociable brain activations for fluid intelligence and executive functions

https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-021-00870-4

Abstract

Cognitive enhancement interventions aimed at boosting human fluid intelligence (gf) have targeted executive functions (EFs), such as updating, inhibition, and switching, in the context of transfer-inducing cognitive training. However, even though the link between EFs and gf has been demonstrated at the psychometric level, their neurofunctional overlap has not been quantitatively investigated. Identifying whether and how EFs and gf might share neural activation patterns could provide important insights into the overall hierarchical organization of human higher-order cognition, as well as suggest specific targets for interventions aimed at maximizing cognitive transfer. We present the results of a quantitative meta-analysis of the available fMRI and PET literature on EFs and gf in humans, showing the similarity between gf and (i) the overall global EF network, as well as (ii) specific maps for updating, switching, and inhibition. Results highlight a higher degree of similarity between gf and updating (80% overlap) compared with gf and inhibition (34%), and gf and switching (17%). Moreover, three brain regions activated for both gf and each of the three EFs also were identified, located in the left middle frontal gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, and anterior cingulate cortex. Finally, resting-state functional connectivity analysis on two independent fMRI datasets showed the preferential behavioural correlation and anatomical overlap between updating and gf. These findings confirm a close link between gf and EFs, with implications for brain stimulation and cognitive training interventions.