Two more Go (general olfactory ability domain) research articles to file under Go in CHC taxonomy of human abilities

Longitudinal changes in odor identification performance and neuropsychological measures in aging individuals.

Wehling, Eike I.; Wollschlaeger, Daniel; Nordin, Steven; Lundervold, Astri J.

Neuropsychology, Vol 30(1), Jan 2016, 87-97. http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.lib.umn.edu/10.1037/neu0000212

Abstract

1. Objective: To examine changes in odor identification performance and cognitive measures in healthy aging individuals. While cross-sectional studies reveal associations between odor identification and measures of episodic memory, processing speed, and executive function, longitudinal studies so far have been ambiguous with regard to demonstrating that odor identification may be predictive of decline in cognitive function. Method: One hundred and 7 healthy aging individuals (average age 60.2 years, 71% women) were assessed with an odor identification test and nonolfactory cognitive measures of verbal episodic memory, mental processing speed, executive function, and language 3 times, covering a period of 6.5 years. Results: The cross-sectional results revealed odor identification performance to be associated with age, measures of verbal episodic memory, and processing speed. Using linear mixed models, the longitudinal analyses revealed age-associated decline in all measures. Controlling for retest effects, the analyses demonstrated that gender was a significant predictor for episodic memory and mental processing speed. Odor identification performance was further shown to be a significant predictor for episodic verbal memory. Conclusion: This study shows age-related decline in odor identification as well as nonolfactory cognitive measures. The finding showing that odor identification is a significant predictor for verbal episodic memory is of great clinical interest as odor identification has been suggested as a sensitive measure of incipient pathologic cognitive decline. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)

Olfactory identification and its relationship to executive functions, memory, and disability one year after severe traumatic brain injury.

Sigurdardottir, Solrun; Andelic, Nada; Skandsen, Toril; Anke, Audny; Roe, Cecilie; Holthe, Oyvor Oistensen; Wehling, Eike

Neuropsychology, Vol 30(1), Jan 2016, 98-108. http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.lib.umn.edu/10.1037/neu0000206

Abstract

1. Objective: To explore the frequency of posttraumatic olfactory (dys)function 1 year after severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and determine whether there is a relationship between olfactory identification and neuropsychological test performance, injury severity and TBI-related disability. Method: A population-based multicenter study including 129 individuals with severe TBI (99 males; 16 to 85 years of age) that could accomplish neuropsychological examinations. Olfactory (dys)function (anosmia, hyposmia, normosmia) was assessed by the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT) or the Brief Smell Identification Test (B-SIT). Three tests of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) were used to assess processing speed, verbal fluency, inhibition and set-shifting, and the California Verbal Learning Test-II was used to examine verbal memory. The Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOSE) was used to measure disability level. Results: Employing 2 different smell tests in 2 equal-sized subsamples, the UPSIT sample (n = 65) classified 34% with anosmia and 52% with hyposmia, while the B-SIT sample (n = 64) classified 20% with anosmia and 9% with hyposmia. Individuals classified with anosmia by the B-SIT showed significantly lower scores for set-shifting, category switching fluency and delayed verbal memory compared to hyposmia and normosmia groups. Only the B-SIT scores were significantly correlated with neuropsychological performance and GOSE scores. Brain injury severity (Rotterdam CT score) and subarachnoid hemorrhage were related to anosmia. Individuals classified with anosmia demonstrated similar disability as those with hyposmia/normosmia. Conclusions: Different measures of olfaction may yield different estimates of anosmia. Nevertheless, around 1 third of individuals with severe TBI suffered from anosmia, which may also indicate poorer cognitive outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)

File under Go (broad olfactory) in the CHC model

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The nose knows: Recent evidence for possible Go (olfactory) working memory

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intelligence IQ tests IQ testing IQ scores CHC intelligence theory CHC theory Cattell-Horn-Carroll human cognitive abilities psychology school psychology individual differences cognitive psychology neuropsychology neuroscience psychology special education educational psychology psychometrics psychological assessment psychological measurement IQs Corner general intelligence intelligent IQ testing validity Gq Gsm Gv Gf working memory Go olfaction olfactory memory memory for smells

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Research byte: More on the "nose knows" - Go and cognition

I continue to be intrigued with the increasing research on the domain of Go.......I have posted a number of articles at my blog over the past five years (can be found by clicking on Go category label) that indicate that it is a separate cognitive domain and, more importantly, it has significant diagnostic potential for a wide array of cognitive disorders, esp. during the early stages of a disorder.

The nose knows :)

Cognitive factors in odor detection, odor discrimination, and odor identification tasks. Journal of Experimental and Clinical Neuropsycholgy, 32 (10), 1062–1067

Authors: Margareta Hednerab; Maria Larssonab; Nancy Arnoldc; Gesualdo M. Zuccod; Thomas Hummelc

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine cognitive correlates of olfactory performance across three different tasks. A total of 170 men and women (30-87 years of age) were assessed in olfactory sensitivity, discrimination, and identification. Also, participants were tested in a range of cognitive tests covering executive functioning, semantic memory, and episodic memory. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that proficiency in executive functioning and semantic memory contributed significantly to odor discrimination and identification performance, whereas all of the cognitive factors proved unrelated to performance in the odor threshold test. This pattern of outcome suggests that an individual's cognitive profile exerts a reliable influence on performance in higher order olfactory tasks.


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Research bytes: The nose knows: More research on olfactory (Go) abilities

Nguyen, A. D., Shenton, M. E., & Levitt, J. J. (2010). Olfactory Dysfunction in Schizophrenia: A Review of Neuroanatomy and Psychophysiological Measurements. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 18(5), 279-292.

Olfactory processing is thought to be mediated via the frontal and temporolimbic brain regions, both of which, as well as olfactory dysfunction, are implicated in schizophrenia. Likewise, several empirical studies of olfactory dysfunction—in particular, olfactory deficits in identification, odor detection threshold sensitivity, and odor memory, along with associated brain structural changes—have been conducted to illuminate the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. These anomalies have been investigated, more recently, as possible biological markers of that disabling illness. This article summarizes recent research on neuroimaging changes associated with olfactory impairments in schizophrenia patients and on related functional changes in psychophysiological measurements (e.g., odor identification, odor discrimination, odor detection threshold, and odor memory). The possible role of these changes as biological markers of the disorder will be discussed, as will potentially productive directions for future research.



Clear, A. M., Konikel, K. E., Nomi, J. S., & McCabe, D. P. (2010). Odor recognition without identification. Memory & Cognition, 38(4), 452-460.

Odors are notoriously difficult to identify, yet an odor can often lead to a sense of recognition, despite an inability to identify it. In the present study, we examined this phenomenon using the recognition-without-identification paradigm. Participants studied either odor names alone or odor names that were accompanied by scratch-and-sniff stickers containing their corresponding scents. At test, the participants were presented with blank scratch-and-sniff stickers, half of which corresponded to items that were studied and half of which did not. The participants attempted to identify each test odor, as well as to rate the likelihood that it corresponded to a studied item. In addition, the participants indicated whether they were in a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state for a given odor's name. Odor recognition without identification was found, but only when the participants had actually smelled the test odor at study; it was not found when the participants only studied odor names and were then tested with odors, suggesting that this effect is an episode-specific, perceptually driven phenomenon. Despite this difference, an overall TOT-attribution effect, whereby recognition ratings were higher during TOT states than during non-TOT states, was shown across conditions.

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The nose knows: Go (olfactoray abilities) lose as an early indicator or Parkinson's

My educational and school psychology colleagues often question the value and purpose of including general olfactory (Go) abilities in the CHC framework. My response is that CHC framework has relevance in more than just educational psychological assessment, and is relevant to understanding and diagnosing human functioning in a variety of clinical, medical, neuropsychological, etc. settings.

The article below is yet another example of the importance in understanding Go abilities. 

Author(s)        Hisayoshi Oka, Chizuko Toyoda, Makiko Yogo & Soichiro Mochio
DOI        10.1007/s00415-009-5447-1
Olfactory dysfunction and cardiovascular dysautonomia in Parkinson’s disease
Journal    Journal of Neurology
Publisher    Springer Berlin / Heidelberg
ISSN    0340-5354 (Print) 1432-1459 (Online)
Issue    Volume 257, Number 6 / June, 2010
Pages    969-976


Abstract 

Several studies have reported that olfactory dysfunction is an early neuropathological manifestation of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Reduced cardiac meta-iodobenzylguanidine (123I-MIBG) uptake may be one of the earliest signs of PD. We studied the relation of olfactory dysfunction to cardiovascular dysautonomia in patients with PD. The study group comprised 66 patients with PD (70.5 years) and 26 controls (70.3 years) for olfactory assessment, 21 controls (72.1 years) for cardiac 123I-MIBG scintigraphy and heart rate variability (HRV), assessed using the coefficient of variation for RR intervals (HRV), and 23 controls (69.2 years) for orthostatic blood pressure response. Olfactory function was assessed by the odor stick identification test Japan (OSIT-J), and cardiovascular autonomic function was evaluated by 123I-MIBG scintigraphy of the heart, the fall in orthostatic blood pressure, and HRV. Patients with PD had a significantly lower OSIT-J score than did the controls (4.1 ± 3.0 vs. 9.9 ± 1.7, p = 0.001). The OSIT-J score was unrelated to variables other than gender, including age, disease duration, motor score on the unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale, score on the mini-mental state examination, motor phenotype, visual hallucinations, and dopaminergic medication on multiple regression and logistic regression analyses. The OSIT-J score was related to the heart/mediastinum ratio of cardiac 123I-MIBG uptake, the fall in orthostatic blood pressure, and HRV, after adjustment for other clinical variables. Olfactory dysfunction in PD was, thus, significantly related to both cardiac sympathetic and parasympathetic dysfunction, as well as vascular sympathetic dysfunction. As non-motor symptoms of PD, olfactory dysfunction and autonomic network failure appear to be closely related in PD.

Technorati Tags: Psychology, school psychology, educational psychology, neuropsychology, neuroscience, clinical psychology, biological psychology, sense of smell, olfactory abilities, Go, Parkinson's disease, CHC theory, intelligence, cognition

CHC intelligence definitions: "Official" table (for now)

In 1997, as part of a book chapter I wrote for Flanagan et al's 1997 CIA book, I developed a table of Cattell-Horn-Carroll cognitive ability definitions (CHC Theory; back then called Extended Gf-Gc theory), which I extracted from Carroll's (1993) seminal treatise. As described in that chapter, Jack Carroll was gracious enough to review and make suggestions via an iterative back-and-forth process...eventually blessing that 1997 table.

Since then this table of broad and narrow CHC definitions has more-or-less become the "official" set of working definitions and has surfaced in most CHC publications.

Since then I've worked to refine these definitions. Part of the refinement process has been seeking feedback from other professionals. I've recently revised the table as it will be used by all authors in a forthcoming special issue on CHC theory and assessment in a school psychology journal.

Today I'm announcing the latest (and greatest) revision of CHC broad and narrow ability definitions. Consider it a "working list" that will undergoe revision as additional research accumulates and additional feedback is received.

A copy can be viewed/downloaded by clicking here.

Technorati Tags: psychology, school psychology, educational psychology, neuropsychology, intelligence, education, general intelligence, IQ test, IQ, IQ scores, CHC theory, Cattell-Horn-Carroll, Gf-Gc, IQs Corner, Gf, Gc, Grw, Gq, Gkn, Go, Gt, Gh, Gp, Gps, Gv, Ga, Gsm, Glr, Gs

Random tidbits from mind blogsphere 12-27-06

• Thanks to Boing Boing for the interesting post regarding "knitting and mathematics."
• The brain fitness movement (with regard to late adulthood) made a splash on the New York Times today.
• More on Go (olfactory) abilities over on the Gene Expression blog. Check out prior Go posts I've made.

Technorati Tags: psycholoyg, educational psychology, school psychology, neuropsychology, olfactory, olfaction, Go, CHC, CHC theory, mathematics, brain fitness, New York Times, intelligence, cognition, smell

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More on Go (olfactory abilities)

More info on Go (olfactory abilities) over at my sister blog (Tick Tock Talk: The IQ Brain Clock). Check out the "olfactometer."

CHC theory: Crystallized intelligence (Gc)

[Note...this is the second in a series of posts I hope to continue in order to provide updated definitions of the major abilities in the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities. See Gf prior post]

The prior knowledge an individual brings to a new task influences their performance on the task. It is commonly assumed (an assumption validated via research) that is much easier to learn and remember something if we have an existing knowledge framework in which to embed the new knowledge (Engle, 1994).

Crystallized intelligence (Gc) is one of the primary human domains of acquired knowledge. Both laypeople and experts agree that Gc is an important part of overall intellectual ability. Gc represented by such behaviors as “displays a good vocabulary,” “reads with high comprehension,” “is verbally fluent,”and “converses easily on a variety of subjects,” was found by Sternberg, et al. (1981) to be the first of three major factors defining intelligence for both experts in the field of intelligence and laypeople (Campito, 1994).

According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology, crystallized abilities are those abilities "such as vocabulary and cultural knowledge, that are a function of learning and experience in a given culture. Crystallized abilities are believed to depend on physiological condition somehwat less than do fluid abilities; thus they may be better sustained in old age. They are also believed by some to derive from fluid abilities." (p. 248)

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) is the breadth and depth of a person's acquired knowledge of a culture and the effective application of this knowledge. According to Horn (1994), "Gc can be thought of as the intelligence of the culture that is incorporated by individuals through a process of acculturation" (Horn, 1994, p.443). This store of primarily verbal or language-based knowledge represents those abilities that have been developed largely through the “investment” of other abilities during educational and general life experiences (Horn Noll, 1997).

Schematically, Gc might be represented by the interconnected nodes of a fishing net. Each node of the net represents an acquired piece of information, and the filaments between nodes (with many possible filaments leading to and from multiple nodes) represent links between different bits of stored information. A person high in Gc abilities would have a rich “fishing net” of information as represented by many meaningfully organized and interconnected nodes. Gc is one of the abilities mentioned most often by lay persons when they are asked to describe an “intelligent” person (Horn, 1988). The image of a sage captures to a large extent the essence of Gc.

According to Gilhooly (1994), when discussing the knowledge domains (in this case, Gc), certain distinctions generally recur: (a) knowing that versus knowing how, (b) declarative versus procedural knowledge, (c) explicit versus implicit (tacit) knowledge, and (d) semantic versus episodic knowledge/memory. The first three distinctions are virtually synonymous. “Knowing that” (i.e.,declarative, explicit knowledge) is consciously known and can typically be expressed in a commonly understood code (e.g., spoken or written language) or in some form of specialized code (e.g., notation in music or dance movement.). “Knowing how" (i.e., procedural, or implicit, knowledge) is not accessible consciously. Although procedural knowledge can be demonstrated in behavior, it is not explicitly communicable. Gc includes both declarative (static) and procedural (dynamic) knowledge. The final Gc knowledge distinction (semantic vs. episodic knowledge) differentiates between knowledge of general concepts, principles, and word meanings (semantic knowledge) versus autobiographical knowledge of specific experiences (episodic knowledge) (Gilhooly, 1994).

Declarative knowledge is held in long-term memory and is activated when related information is in working memory. Declarative knowledge includes factual information, comprehension, concepts, rules, and relationships, especially when the information is verbal in nature. For example, during pre-clinical training, a medical student acquires declarative knowledge about diagnosing clinical problems—the student learns factual information, concepts, rules, and relationships.

Procedural knowledge refers to the process of reasoning with previously learned procedures in order to transform knowledge. For example, during the second phase of medical training, when medical students study a patient's case, current information in short-term working memory triggers the student to retrieve declarative knowledge and apply it to the patient. Applied declarative knowledge is procedural knowledge.

An individual with poor Gc lacks information or language skills or has an inability to communicate (especially verbally) his or her knowledge. Such a weakness can produce cumulative learning problems as it becomes increasingly difficult to learn from what one is reading or hearing if the words, vocabulary, and concepts in the material are not in a reader’s existing fishing net of knowledge. That is, it is hard to relate and connect a new “node” of information to a net of knowledge where no similar nodes exist. We would all most likely fail a course in quantum physics as few of us have a net of knowledge that includes the “prerequisite” nodes of information to make sense of the new material. The concept of academic course prerequisites reflects an awareness of the importance of prerequisite knowledge in a domain.

Given the limited capacity of working memory, formal human knowledge domains (Gc, as well as other acquired knowledge domains such as Grw, Gq, Gkn), seek "cognitive economy in terms of rules or principles with the widest range and the maximum simplicity." Gilhooly (1994, p. 637). This preference for simplicity (to minimize cognitive effort) can result in over-simplifications at the cost of inaccuracies. Furthermore,because people can only actively focus attention on a limited amount of their vast store of acquired knowledge at any one time, knowledge (e.g., Gc) tends to be organized into hierarchical structures. The hierarchical organization of knowledge helps insure that associations to related information are strongest (Gilhooly, 1994; p.637).

The breadth of Gc is apparent from the number of narrow abilities that it subsumes.

In the arena of intelligence research, Gc has been likened to the wallflower ability. See comments by Earl Hunt for clarification.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, intelligence, IQ, IQ scores, IQ tests, CHC, CHC theory, Cattell-Horn-Carroll, cognition, cognitive, Gc, Gsm, crystallized intelligence, knowledge, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, memory

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The nose "knows" - Importance of olfactory (Go) abilities in mental disorders

In my book chapter, CHC Theory: Past, Present, and Future (this is on-line version of a chapter published in Flanagan and Genshaft's 2005 CIA book) I alerted folks to the fact that the CHC taxonomy of cognitive abilities needed to be expanded to include tactile (Gh), kinesthetic (Gk), and olfactory abilities (Go) (click here). Many of my educational/school psychology colleagues have often asked me what possible relevance Go abilities would have for psychological assessment. To make a long story short, I have reminded my educationally-based friends and associates that cognitive assessments are used in many non-educational settings (e.g., aging research and clinical work; occupational settings; industrial settings; personnel selection settings, etc.).

In my 2005 chapter, I stated: "although largely ignored in structural investigations of human cognitive abilities, olfactory abilities (Go) are important to study given the use of the olfactory sense by blind or partially sighted people, and experts such as “gourmets, wine connoisseurs, coffee experts, and the like” (Danthiir, Roberts, Pallier, G. & Stankov, 2001, p. 357). In addition, recent clinical research has suggested that declines in olfactory abilities may be associated with a variety of clinical disorders and diseases ranging from Azheimer’s, idiopathic Parkinson’s, alcoholism and drug abuse, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders, severe- stage anorexia nervosa, Down’s syndrome, head trauma, multiple sclerosis, restless leg syndrome, seasonal affective disorder, and others (see Doty, 2001, for a complete review)"

I have now run across two new empirical articles that continue to suggest that assessment and monitoring of Go abilities may be important for the possible early detection of eventual mental decline/disorders as well as helping us better understand the underlying neurological structural/functional mechanisms of certain mental/cognitive disorders. Both studies were published in the Journal of Experimental and Clinical Neuropsychology (2006, Vol 28). For those who want to be in the "nose", I've reproduced the references and abstracts below, along with links to the original articles. One articles deals with Go and schizophrenia while the other deals with Go and Huntingon's Disease

Larsson et al. (2006). Olfactory Functions in Asymptomatic Carriers of the Huntington Disease Mutation

• Huntington’s disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder initially affecting the basal ganglia and especially the head of the caudate nucleus. Neuropsychological research has indicated that olfactory dysfunction may appear early in HD, prior to the onset of significant motor or cognitive dysfunction. The aim of this study was to examine whether asymptomatic carriers of the Huntington disease mutation also exhibit olfactory dysfunction. To address this issue we presented an extensive olfactory test battery comprising tasks assessing olfactory sensitivity, intensity discrimination, quality discrimination, episodic odor memory, and odor identification, to a group of gene carriers and nonmutation carriers of the disease. The results showed that gene carriers were selectively impaired in discriminating odor quality, although performance did not differ from noncarriers across the other tasks. The role played by striatum and then in particular the caudate nucleus for olfactory processing in general, and for odor quality discrimination in particular, is discussed.

Moberg et al. (2006). Olfactory Functioning in Schizophrenia: Relationship to Clinical, Neuropsychological, and Volumetric MRI Measures

• Deficits in odor identification and detection threshold sensitivity have been observed in schizophrenia but their relationship to clinical, cognitive, and biologic measures have not been clearly established. Our objectives were to examine the relationship between measures of odor identification and detection threshold sensitivity and clinical, neuropsychological, and anatomic brain measures. Twenty-one patients with schizophrenia and 20 healthy controls were administered psychophysical tests of odor identification and detection threshold sensitivity to phenyl ethyl alcohol. In addition, clinical symptom ratings, neuropsychological measures of frontal and temporal lobe function and whole brain MRIs were concurrently obtained. Patients exhibited significant deficits in odor identification but normal detection threshold sensitivity. Poorer odor identification scores were associated with longer duration of illness, increased negative and disorganized symptoms, and the deficit syndrome, as well as impairments in verbal and nonverbal memory. Better odor detection thresholds were specifically associated with first-rank or productive symptoms. Larger left temporal lobe volumes with MRI were associated with better odor identification in controls but not in patients. Given the relevance of the neural substrate, and the evidence of performance deficits, psychophysical probes of the integrity of the olfactory system hold special promise for illuminating aspects of the neurobiology underlying schizophrenia.

Finally, I ran a quick search of the IAP reference database and located the following additional references...for those who want to read more.

• Elsner, R. J. F. (2001). Odor memory and aging. Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition, 8(4), 284-306.
• Larsson, M., Oberg, C., & Backman, L. (2005). Odor identification in old age: Demographic, sensory and cognitive correlates. Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition, 12(3 ), 231-244.
• Lowen, S. B., & Lukas, S. E. (2006). A low-cost, MR-compatible olfactometer. Behavior Research Methods, 38(2), 307-313.
• Danthiir, V., Roberts, R. D., Pallier, G., & Stankov, L. (2001). What the nose knows: Olfaction and cognitive abilities. Intelligence, 29, 337-361.
• Miles, C., & Hodder, K. (2005). Serial position effects in recognition memory for odors: A reexamination. Memory & Cognition, 33(7), 1303-1314.
• Doty, R. L., & Kerr, K. L. (2005). Episodic odor memory: Influences of handedness, sex, and side of nose. Neuropsychologia, 43(12), 1749-1753.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, neuropsychology, neuroscience, olfaction, olfactory, Go, CHC theory, CHC, intelligence, IQ, cognition, cognitive, tactile, kinesthetic, psychological assessment, psychological testing, schizophrenia, Huningtons disease, nose, smell, aging

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