Research byte: Importance of executive control (updating, inhibiting) in lexical access (rapid naming speed)

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Research byte: Phonemic awareness, working memory, RAN related but separate reading related constructs

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Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Annual Review of Psychology article (2012 in press)

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Annual Review of Psychology RAN rapid automatic naming phonological processing Ga Glr reading fluency

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Research Bytes: Gs, Glr (RAN), Ga and magnocellular processing and dyslexia

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Research byte: Cognitive development of reading fluency

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intelligence IQ tests IQ scores CHC theory Cattell-Horn-Carroll human cognitive abilities psychology school psychology individual differences cognitive psychology neuropsychology special education educational psychology psychometrics psychological assessment psychological measurement IQs Corner Reading reading fluency dyslexia Ga Glr rapid naming RAN Phonological processing Orthographic processing

Research bytes 7-27-10: Working memory & language; naming deficits and reading fluency in dyslexia

Three very interesting research articles.  The first provides a nice overview of the research on working memory (and the various constructs involved), even if you are not interested specifically in specific language impairment issues.  Usual quid-pro-quo offer stands---I will supply a copy of the PDF file to anyone who wants to read one of the articles in exchange for a brief guest blog post (at which time I will then provide a link to the article for others)


Montgomery, J. W., Magimairaj, B. M., & Finney, M. C. (2010). Working Memory and Specific Language Impairment: An Update on the Relation and Perspectives on Assessment and Treatment. American Journal of Speech Language Pathology, 19(1), 78-94.

Children with specific language impairment(SLI) demonstrate significant language impairments despite normal-range hearing and nonverbal IQ. Many of these children also show marked deficits in working memory (WM) abilities. However, the theoretical and clinical characterization of the association between WM and language limitations in SLI is still sparse. Our understanding of this association would benefit greatly from an updated and thorough review of the literature. Method: We review the newest developments in these areas from both a theoretical and clinical perspective. Our intent is to provide researchers and practicing clinicians (a) a conceptual framework within which the association between WM and language limitations of children with SLI can be understood and (b) potentially helpful suggestions for assessing and treating the memory-language difficulties of children with SLI.  Conclusions: In the past 10 years, important new theoretical insights into the range and nature of WM deficits and relation between these limitations and the language difficulties in SLI have occurred. New, robust diagnostic assessment tools and computerized treatment methods designed to enhance children’s WM functioning have also been developed. The assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of the language difficulties in SLI should consider the potential influence of WM.

Meisinger, E. B., Bloom, J. S., & Hynd, G. W. (2010). Reading fluency: implications for the assessment of children with reading disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 60(1), 1-17.

The current investigation explored the diagnostic utility of reading fluency measures in the identification of children with reading disabilities. Participants were 50 children referred to a university-based clinic because of suspected reading problems and/or a prior diagnosis of dyslexia, where children completed a battery of standardized intellectual, reading achievement, and processing measures. Within this clinical sample, a group of children were identified that exhibited specific deficits in their reading fluency skills with concurrent deficits in rapid naming speed and reading comprehension. This group of children would not have been identified as having a reading disability according to assessment of single word reading skills alone, suggesting that it is essential to assess reading fluency in addition to word reading because failure to do so may result in the under-identification of children with reading disabilities.

Jones, M. W., Branigan, H. P., Hatzidaki, A., & Obregon, M. (2010). Is the 'naming' deficit in dyslexia a misnomer? Cognition, 116(1), 56-70.

We report a study that investigated the widely held belief that naming-speed deficits in developmental dyslexia reflect impaired access to lexical-phonological codes. To investigate this issue, we compared adult dyslexic and adult non-dyslexic readers’ performance when naming and semantically categorizing arrays of objects. Dyslexic readers yielded slower response latencies than non-dyslexic readers when naming objects, but a subsequent comparison of object-naming and object-categorization tasks showed that the apparent ‘naming’ deficit could be attributed to a more general difficulty in retrieving information – either phonological or semantic – from the visual stimulus. Our findings suggest that although visual–phonological connections may be crucial in explaining naming-speed performance they do not fully characterise dyslexic readers’ naming-speed impairments.

Technorati Tags: Psychology, school psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, forensic psychology, neuropsychology, special education, intelligence, cognitive abilities, cognition, intelligence theories, CHC theory, CHC, Cattell-Horn-Carroll, intelligence, cognition, IQ, IQ tests, Gf, Gc, Gv, Ga, Gsm, Glr, Gs, Gq, Grw, working memory, reading speed, reading fluency, RAN, naming deficits, LD, dyslexia

Dissertation dish: WJ III/KABC-II Gv and ach AND Gs, RAN, Ga, work mem and reading

Visual-spatial thinking and academic achievement: A concurrent and predictive validity study by Yazzie, Anslem, Ph.D., Northern Arizona University, 2009 , 92 pages; AAT 3370650

Abstract

Forty-eight students were administered the Spatial Relations and Picture Recognition subtests of Woodcock-Johnson III Visual-Spatial Thinking Cluster, Rover and Triangles subtests of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition Visual Processing Cluster, and Word Reading, Math Computation, and Spelling subtests of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Four Edition. According to previous research, several assumptions regarding visual-spatial thinking's correlation with achievement, concurrent validity with other measures, and differences in gender and ethnicity had been found to be variant. Mean differences were compared for significance of performance on overall clusters. Examination of cluster performances indicated that visual-spatial thinking ( Gv ) was equally measured on both cognitive measures. There was a notable relationship between cognitive Gv performances and achievement. When mean differences were made in terms of ethnicity, no statistical difference was found. In contrast, a significant difference was found when gender was examined. Results are discussed in terms of implications for school psychologists, researchers, and teachers.

The relationships among cognitive ability measures and irregular word, non-word, and word reading by Abu-Hamour, Bashir, Ph.D., The University of Arizona, 2009 , 160 pages; AAT 3369670

Abstract

This study examined the relationships between and among: (a) Processing Speed (PS) Cluster and Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) Total to reading ability; (b) measures of RAN and PS to irregular word, non-word, and word reading; and (c) the relationships among irregular word, non-word, and word reading. The word reading measures were predicted by using multiple cognitive abilities including Phonological Awareness (PA), RAN, PS, and Working Memory (WM). Sixty participants, 39 students who were average readers and 21 students with reading difficulties in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 were recruited.

Correlational designs testing predictive relationships were used to conduct this study. The results indicated that the PS Cluster had the strongest correlation with irregular word reading, whereas the RAN Total had the strongest correlation with both word reading and non-word reading ability. Reading performance was best predicted by RAN-Letters. In addition, the Woodcock-Johnson III Visual Matching test had the strongest predictive power of reading ability among all of the PS measures.

High correlations were found among the reading variables within normally distributed data, whereas there was no significant correlation between irregular and nonword reading within the group of students with Reading Difficulties. These findings provide support for the dual-route theory. Among the 21 students with RD, 10 students presented problems in both non-word reading and irregular word reading; 9 students presented problems just in non-word reading; and 2 students presented problems just in irregular word reading.

A model consisting of RAN, PA, and PS, as included in the study measures, provided the most powerful prediction of all reading skills. These findings also lend more support to the double-deficit model and indicate that PA and naming speed problems contribute independently to variance in reading.

This study provides direction for the assessment of specific reading disability and the cognitive underpinnings of this disorder. These findings support the need to assess PA, RAN, and PS, as well as various types of word reading skills, when making a reading disability diagnosis. Further research may cross validate the results of this study, or add other aspects of reading (eg., reading fluency or comprehension) to this line of research.

Technorati Tags: psychology, education, special education, learning disabilities, school psychology, educational psychology, learning, reading, math, visual spatial, working memory, RAN, rapid automatic naming, processing speed, Gs, Gsm, Ga, Glr, reading, math, dyslexia, dyscalculia, IQs Corner

Phonological and auditory temporal processing theories of dyslexia

I just skimmed the following "in press" article and found the introduction and discussion to be excellent overviews of the phonological deficit and auditory temporal processing theories of severe reading disability (dyslexia). Regardless of the interpretation of the results, and the small sample size, the introduction and discussion sections are worth reading simply to become more familiar with the central features of the phonological deficit vs auditory temporal processing theories of dyslexia.

• Boets, B., Wouters J., van Wieringen A. & Ghesquiere, P. (in press). Auditory processing, speech perception and phonological ability in pre-school children at high-risk for dyslexia: A longitudinal study of the auditory temporal processing theory. Neuropsychologia. (click here to view)
  

Technorati Tags: psychology, education, educational psychology, school psychology, special education, reading, reading disabilities, LD, dyslexia, phonological, temporal processing, Ga, audiitory

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Neural mechanisms of dyslexia summary

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As I've written before, I always look forward to skimming the contents of Current Directions in Psychological Science for brief, contemporary “taking stock” summaries of an area of psychological research, typically by prominent researchers in the domain of inquiry.

The latest issue did not disappoint. There is a nice summary of the general consensus of the neurological research on severe reading disorders (dyslexia) by the Shawyitz team. The reference, abstract, and URL link to pdf is below. Enjoy.

• Shaywitz, S., Mody, M. & Shaywitz, B. (2007). Neural Mechanisms in Dyslexia. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15 (6), 278-281. (click here to view)
  

Abstract

• Within the last two decades, evidence from many laboratories has converged to indicate the cognitive basis for dyslexia: Dyslexia is a disorder within the language system and, more specifically, within a particular subcomponent of that system, phonological processing. Converging evidence from a number of laboratories using functional brain imaging indicates that there is a disruption of left-hemisphere posterior neural systems in child and adult dyslexic readers when they perform reading tasks. The discovery of a disruption in the neural systems serving reading has significant implications for the acceptance of dyslexia as a valid disorder—a necessary condition for its identification and treatment. Brainimaging findings provide, for the first time, convincing, irrefutable evidence that what has been considered a hidden disability is ‘‘real,’’ and these findings have practical implications for the provision of accommodations, a critical component of management for older children and young adults attending postsecondary and graduate programs. The utilization of advances in neuroscience to inform educational policy and practices provides an exciting example of translational science being used for the public good.

Technorati Tags: psychology, education, educational psychology, special education, neuropsychology, neuroscience, neurology, reading, reading disability, dyslexia, fMRI, LD, learning disabilities

More on rapid automatic naming (RAN) and reading - Guest post by Jeff Evans

The following is a guest post by Jeff Evans (SLP and Assessment Project Director with Pearson Assessments ), a member of the IQs Corner Virtual Community of Scholars project.

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I want to believe the double-deficit theory has predictive strength for reading ability, because it is such a parsimonious theory. After writing for this blog about Vukovic & Siegel, 2006, “The Double-Deficit Hypothesis: A Comprehensive Analysis of the Evidence.” I’ve continued to read about what we know and what we don’t know regarding the double-deficit theory. I recently discovered this excellent book:

• H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds), (2003). Handbook of learning disabilities. New York: Guilford Press.

The chapter by Bowers & Ishaek entitled “RAN's contribution to understanding reading disabilities” was very good. I thought I would be provided with a strong dichotomous viewpoint on RAN and its relation to reading (from what I had read in Vukovic & Siegel, 2006.) I was wrong, and surprised. Bowers sees the evidence somewhat less starkly than Vukovic, but not entirely differently. Recall this statement in Vukovic’s 2006 article:

There is a lack of evidence to support the hypothesis that deficits in naming speed skills are independently related to reading impairment. Research that has examined the independence of naming speed from phonological awareness has demonstrated inconsistent findings, with most studies supporting naming speed as a phonological variable.

What is the upshot? We are left with a sticky issue. Plenty of good evidence that RAN measures something associated with reading; likely consistent with studies suggesting three deficits, not just two: phonological awareness, naming speed, and orthographic awareness.

[Blog dictator note - below is the reference and abstract for this chapter. Evans provided a lenghty bulleted set of comments/conclusions from the chapter. For the sake of blog post brevity I have posted that additional information in a separte pdf file that can be accessed by clicking here]

Bowers. P.G., & Ishaek, G. (2003). RAN's contribution to understanding reading disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 140-157). New York: Guilford Press.

• Abstract: Much research evidence has accumulated demonstrating that phonological processing, especially sensitivity to the individual phonemes in oral language, plays an important role in learning to read not only English but other languages as well. A major issue for the field investigating cognitive bases for reading disabilities is that of the sufficiency of this factor in explaining reading difficulties. Are other cognitive differences (e.g., working memory and naming speed) which characterize reading disabled versus normally achieving readers just correlates of the phonological problems or consequences of poor reading? Or, are they somewhat independent correlates or causes of reading difficulties? This chapter addresses one variable for which this question has been debated, the rapid naming of highly familiar visual symbols. Is slow naming a marker for underlying problems associated with reading acquisition not explained by phonological difficulties (Bowers & Wolf, 1993; Wolf & Bowers, 1999)? Or, is slow naming speed a type of phonological problem partially distinct from phoneme awareness but still tapping a similar underlying deficit (e.g., Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1994)? Although the debate about the nature of the deficit underlying slow naming has not been resolved, the results of the many studies in this area have enriched our knowledge about reading acquisition and reading fluency. The perspective taken in this chapter is that slow naming speed marks a second core deficit associated with reading disabilities whose effects are reflected in a particular profile of reading skills.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, education, cognition, intelligence, reading, learning disabilities, RAN, dyslexia

Revisiting the double deficit dyslexia hypothesis (again) - guest post by J. Evans

The following is a guest post by Jeff Evans (SLP and Assessment Project Director with Pearson Assessments ), a member of the IQs Corner Virtual Community of Scholars project. Evans provides a much more detailed set of comments than were originally made by the blogmaster in a prior post re: this article (visit prior post to view pdf copy of article)

• Vukovic, R. K., & Siegel, L. S. (2006). The double-deficit hypothesis: a comprehensive analysis of the evidence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(1), 25-47.

• Abstract: The double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia proposes that deficits in phonological processing and naming speed represent independent sources of dysfunction in dyslexia. The present article is a review of the evidence for the double-deficit hypothesis, including a discussion of recent findings related to the hypothesis. Studies in this area have been characterized by variability in methodology?how dyslexia is defined and identified, and how dyslexia subtypes are classified. Such variability sets limitations on the extent to which conclusions may be drawn with respect to the double-deficit hypothesis. Furthermore, the literature is complicated by the persistent finding that measures of phonological processing and naming speed are significantly correlated, resulting in a statistical artifact that makes it difficult to disentangle the influence of naming speed from that of phonological processing. Longitudinal and intervention studies of the double-deficit hypothesis are needed to accumulate evidence that investigates a naming speed deficit that is independent of a phonological deficit for readers with dyslexia. The existing evidence does not support a persistent core deficit in naming speed for readers with dyslexia.

It is interesting how quickly we accept "good ideas" and begin to incorporate them into our work. Or not. I had almost come to accept the double-deficit hypothesis as fundamental to my understanding of dyslexia. This article was a reminder that good science takes time, and a community effort. Below are a few comments/conclusions from my reading of this article.

• There is limited evidence that naming speed should be characterized separately from the phonological skills family, as naming speed and phonological tasks tend to be positively correlated, and phonological interventions have been found to reduce the occurrence of naming speed deficits.

• The results from previous studies have suggested that a naming speed deficit is not necessarily a core deficit of dyslexia and that naming speed deficits characterize dyslexia only in the presence of concurrent phonological deficits.
  

• The results of this review shed light on the current evidence for the double-deficit hypothesis, identified gaps in our understanding of the hypothesis, and identified outstanding issues yet to be resolved.

• Consistent with the conclusions of a prior review (McCardle et al., 2001), the findings from this review suggest that evidence in support of the double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia remains limited.

• One could make the argument that low naming speed is characteristic of some readers with dyslexia, who are also characterized by phonological deficits, but the evidence does not support a persistent core deficit in naming speed across individuals with dyslexia.

• There is a lack of evidence to support the hypothesis that deficits in naming speed skills are independently related to reading impairment. Research that has examined the independence of naming speed from phonological awareness has demonstrated inconsistent findings, with most studies supporting naming speed as a phonological variable.

• It was difficult to explicate common theoretical, methodological, and psychometric criteria and standards used in double-deficit and naming speed studies. There was tremendous variability surrounding sample characteristics and the identification of reader types. And there is the persistent finding that measures of phonological processing and naming speed are significantly correlated, resulting in a statistical artifact that makes it difficult to disentangle the influence of naming speed independently of phonological processing.

• Much of the research cited in support of the double-deficit hypothesis of dyslexia was not actually designed with this hypothesis in mind, and there appear to be just as many theoretical as empirical studies of the double-deficit hypothesis.

• A significant gap in the double-deficit literature is the lack of properly designed intervention studies.

• As Wagner and Torgesen (1987) outlined, to evaluate the relations between a variable and a process, converging evidence must be found from cross-sectional, longitudinal, and intervention studies. With respect to the double-deficit hypothesis, the majority of the research has employed cross-sectional designs, and evidence from longitudinal studies remains sparse.
  

• Intervention studies designed to remediate dyslexia by targeting naming speed processes are particularly important to properly investigate the double-deficit hypothesis.

• A study that would contribute to our understanding of the double-deficit hypothesis would match groups of children with dyslexia who have similar phonemic awareness skills but differ significantly in RAN performance. These groups would then be randomly assigned to a phonologically based reading program and a control group, and a subtype-by-treatment interaction could be examined, also referred to as at-tribute-by-treatment interaction (ATI).

• At this time, the variation in reading ability and definitions of dyslexia employed in the double-deficit literature and the yet undefined relationship of RAN to a particular aspect of the reading process have resulted in a lack of clarity about slow naming and its specific role in reading ability.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, education, special education, school psychology, learning disabilities, reading disabilities, dyslexia, naming speed, NA, Glr, phonological awareness, Ga, double deficit, reading

The double deficit dyslexia hypothesis revisited

There is little doubt that the "double deficit" hypothesis is on of the most prominent models advanced to explain severe reading disabilities (dyslexia). It is refreshing to see a recent JLD review that casts fresh eyes on the validity of the DD hypothesis, and more importantly, a closer look at what the two core disabilities are, are not...or.....whether there is any agreement in the field re: what they represent in terms of basic underlying cognitive processes.

Below is the reference and abstract. I would encourage assessment professionals working with the education of students with reading problems to give this article a read. The authors conclude that the DD hypothesis may be given to much creedance, largely due to ubiqutous problems in research methodology across a diverse set of studies(e.g., use of different measures; different operational defintions of the core constructs; different theoretical explanations; etc.). The authors conclude that "the existing evidence does not support a persistent core deficit in naming speed for readers with dyslexia."

Although I need to reconcile this conclusion with the extant postive research that suggests that naming speed (Glr-NA: Naming Ability in the land of CHC theory)is significantly related to early reading success, such a review does give one pause. As with all highly visible established research lore, maybe the DD hypothesis, although true, may be over-stated. The article provides a nice overview of the various issues in the methodological problems in this research, competing theoretical explanations, and different attempts to define what measures of RAN (rapid automatic naming) actually measure.

Vukovic, R. K. Siegel, L. (2006). The Double-Deficit Hypothesis: A Comprehensive Analysis of the Evidence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39 (1), 25-47. (click here to view/download)

Abstract

• The double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia proposes that deficits in phonological processing and naming speed represent independent sources of dysfunction in dyslexia. The present article is a review of the evidence for the double-deficit hypothesis, including a discussion of recent findings related to the hypothesis. Studies in this area have been characterized by variability in methodology—how dyslexia is defined and identified, and how dyslexia subtypes are classified. Such variability sets limitations on the extent to which conclusions may be drawn with respect to the double-deficit hypothesis. Furthermore, the literature is complicated by the persistent finding that measures of phonological processing and naming speed are significantly correlated, resulting in a statistical artifact that makes it difficult to disentangle the influence of naming speed from that of phonological processing. Longitudinal and intervention studies of the double-deficit hypothesis are needed to accumulate evidence that investigates a naming speed deficit that is independent of a phonological deficit for readers with dyslexia. The existing evidence does not support a persistent core deficit in naming speed for readers with dyslexia.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, education, special education, school psychology, learning disabilities, reading disabilities, dyslexia, naming speed, NA, Glr, phonological awareness, Ga, double deficit, reading